Political Theory Essay Example for Free

Political Theory Essay Envy Test—The theory that the division of resources is actually equal if and only if one person does not prefer someone else’s portion of the wealth to his own. That means that if everyone in society is ahppy with what they have as compared to what everyone else has then the society passes the envy test. This has never happened and seems contrary to human nature. The further fallacy is that it could ever be achieved in that some people are born with innate talents that cannot be changed to give them fewer resources. Unremunerated rights—Proponents of this political theory argue that the Bill of Rights was not intended as a list of all the rights a person should be guaranteed under the Constitution. They argue that rights not listed, for instance the right to privacy, still exist. This theory was first put forth by the Warren Court in arguing that people had a right to privacy. It is also frequently used in the abortion rights debate as a justification for a woman’s right to control her own body. Politics of recognition—this is the political theory that argues we can only achieve enlightenment and equality when we recognize that people are not homogenous and acknowledge the inherent differences among people. This is almost the exact opposite of politics of equality which claim that all people have the same basic needs, wants and desires and should be treated all the same. Civic engagement—is the term used to define a person’s involvement in the social and political causes of the world around them. In psychology, it used primarily to describe how involved a person is in social causes—volunteering at a soup kitchen, etc. In political science terms, it is used to define how involved a person is in the participatory aspects of government—do they just vote, take an active role in campaigns, support certain candidates, etc. Black consciousnessprimarily used in relation to South African politics, this is the theory than being black is more than a skin color and represents the way the minority chooses to act toward itself and toward others. The movement argues that blacks in South Africa exploit each other more than whites exploit each other and that part of the problem is a culturally defined set of values and attributes that they have accepted about themselves. The movement calls for blacks to band together to change the way they treat themselves and to change the way they are treated by the remainder of society. Veil of ignorance—this is the theory that citizens are deliberately kept in the dark about the actual effects of certain legislation. In 1971, philosopher John Rawls argued that social justice requires that people be blind to the way something will impact them in particular and look instead to how it affects society as whole. In recent years, the argument has been made the special interest groups have lifted the veil of ignorance making everyone consider how legislation affects them personally. Universal citizenship—the goal of universal citizenship is to eliminate all barriers to participation in the political process. Thus, under a proposal for it in the European Union, even children would have the right to vote, though this would be carried out by their parents until they reached a certain age either 16 or 18. It assumes that everyone should have an equal right to participate in the political process. Anthropocentrism—is the process of viewing things from a solely human perspective and the word is usually used in a derogatory sense implying that by being so self-absorbed in the wants, needs and desires of humanity we may be ignoring the needs of another equally important species. This is completely in opposition to the concepts of survival of the fittest and to the victor goes the spoils. According to Dworkin, Adrian (the gardener) owes nothing to Bruce (the tennis player), as a matter of justice. Although they will have unequal goods, this is not unjust. However, Adrian might owe something to Claude (the unsuccessful gardener), and Adrian’s descendents may owe something to Bruce’s descendents. Why? In your answer, be sure to identify and apply Dworkin’s theory of distributive justice. In Dworkin’s theory of distributive justice, the beginnings are the all important state as is their impact on the end.   In this scenario, the statement that Adrian owes nothing to Bruce implies that they began life with equal resources or that Bruce began life with greater resources. It does not discuss whether Bruce might owe something to Adrian. Likewise, by saying that Adrian might owe something to Claude, who is unemployed, it implies that Claude and Adrian have equal resources and equal talents, but that Adrian has been successful where Claude has not. Furthermore, by saying that Adrian’s descendants might owe something to Bruce’s descendents the question implies that those descendants might have unequal beginning resources and ending statuses. The key to Dworkin’s distribution of wealth theory is that equal resource means equality. Therefore, if both Adrian and Bruce have the same basic resources—family, education, etc.—then they have met the initial requirement for equality. However, when a situation develops so that Adrian envies the things that Bruce has, the equality is gone. The problem with Dworkin’s theory is that it fails to address the impact of talents in the equation and also fails to address non-financial aspects of the envy test. For example, if Adrian and Bruce are able to achieve equal financial success with their respective professions, they should be equal under the envy test, but if Adrian believes (accurately or not) that Bruce has a more glamorous life with less work, more access to fame, etc., then the situation may still fail the envy test. This example perfectly demonstrates the flaws in the envy test and in Dworkin’s theory. Regardless of the flaws, Dworkin’s theory has been largely employed and thus the other caveats of the question.   The way that Dworkin’s theory has been employed, it is accepted as a given that Claude, who is unemployed, will be envious of Adrian and therefore they will be unequal. To even out this inequality, the government application of the theory has been to take resources (in the form of taxes) from Adrian and give them to Claude. The problem with this solution is that it can create envy in the opposite direction. To make them equal, you would have to remove half of what Adrian has and give it to Claude so that he would not be envious of Adrian. Then, the two would have equal resources.   Then, however, Adrian is likely to be jealous of Claude who has all the same things that Adrain does but who has not had to work for them; he will envy Claude’s lifestyle. Ultimately, much of the bashing done about the distribution of wealth system comes down to just that—another form of envy. The liberal view of universal citizenship has been challenged by feminists and advocates for race-based identity politics. What is this view, what about it has been challenged, and what is it alleged to be missing? In your answer, discuss the theories of Young/MacKinnon and Fanon/Biko. The problem with the liberal view of universal citizenship is that it requires as basis equality. If all people were equal, had always been equal, and would always been equal, then the concept of universal citizenship would be not only valid, but the appropriate thing to promote. However, the reason that it is widely-challenged by feminists and advocated for race-based identity politics is that at no point in human history have individuals ever been treated as true equals. MacKinnon and other feminists argue that it is more likely that without identifiable and motivate sub-groups of voters, the system will default o maintaining the status quo and will as a consequence promote dominance by white male society. Fanon’s argument is similar though not exactly the same. He argues that to appreciate the value of citizenship, one must have been involved in a violent struggle to attain it. This is sort of revolutionary politics at heart. It assumes that people do not value rights that they are given so much as those that they fight for. The basic premised is that in fighting, through violent struggle to attain citizenship and later the rights conveyed with citizenship, the African-American (and to a lesser extent other racial groups) has gained a self-identity that would be lost if they had been granted universal citizenship. It is possible that the opposition to universal citizenship comes from our ingrained belief in traditional political theory as developed by dead white men who placed huge limitations on citizenship including social class, race, gender, age, land ownership and literacy as well as other requirements through the ages. It should also be considered whether, despite their high-minded motivations, feminists and others who have been granted citizenship and the rights therein are not opposing universal citizenship in their own out-moded version of us versus the other. As they are no longer a distinctive portion of the other, it is possible that they desire to continue to bestow that status on different individuals including recent immigrants and children. Conservative opponents to universal citizenship say that the concept eliminates concepts of national allegiance and even racial allegiance, leading to a homogony of people that destroys diversification and eliminates cultural differences. While some proponents would say that is exactly the point, opponents point out that assimilation of all different ideas into one mainstream is counterproductive and eliminates the desire for and will to change. Kymlicka claims that all approaches to contemporary political theory endorse the proposition that all persons should be treated as equals, and that their disagreement comes down to the practical question of what that entails. What must be done to treat all persons as equals, according to libertarianism, liberal equality, utilitarianism, feminism, and Marxism? According to libertarian philosophy, equality happens when people do not use force against one another and people are given all rights which do not impose on the rights of others. This is the ultimate culmination of the Wiccan creed of â€Å"It harm none, do what though wilt.†   Libertarians believe in the defensive use of force to protect what is yours, but are staunchly opposed to the use of aggressive force. Aggressive force can never be used to promote equality. Those who argue for liberal equality believe that it is the opportunity matters. If people are given an equal chance at success, then the system has been successful according to those who support liberal equality. Utilitarians believe that people are equal when the common good is enacted for the rights of all people and that the common good applies equally to all members of society. Proponents of this theory argue that good is the important motivator and if all the actions are taken in a strict moral and ethical stance for the good of all people then the actions are inherently equal. Feminism comes in two distinctive branches: one simply promoted that after years of oppression a woman is equal to a man and can therefore do anything he can do. In an extreme form of feminism, some believe that the woman’s capability of imbuing life and her propensity for compassion make her superior to the male of the species.   The problem in extreme forms of feminism is that they also believe women should be given more than equal opportunities in an effort to make up for the centuries of oppression by men and that men should be denigrated to the class of secondary citizens.  Ã‚   Marxist theory claims that men are unequal in their talents and abilities, but that one talent or ability should not be more highly valued than another—thus a person whose talent is in digging ditches should be as valued as a person whose talent is neurosurgery. Are equal rights sufficient for realizing justice? Why or why not? In your answer, consider and discuss those theories of justice that find equal rights sufficient as well as those that do not. Equal rights are not sufficient for justice. There must also be an equal application of those rights. For instance, if a black man and a white man are accused of a crime, both have an equal right under the law to a jury of their peers, but depending on the racial makeup of the jury selection pool, they may not have an equal opportunity for the enforcement of those rights. A black man may find himself facing a just or only white Americans and vice versa.   Likewise, technically a rich man and a poor man have the same right counsel if accused of a crime, but the reality of access tells us that the rich man will likely hire an independent lawyer and will be less likely to serve time for his crime.

Ayn Rand Essay -- essays research papers fc

This essay will discuss the life and works of Ayn Rand. The woman who would become Ayn Rand was born Alice Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905. (Branden, Barbara pg.3 1986). She was born during the eleventh year of Nicholas II's reign in Russia.(Baker pg.1 1987). Rand's birth was just before a revolution in Russia, however this revolution was put down by her first year.(Branden, Barbara pg.3 1986). The Rosenbaum's lived quite comfortably under the czar.(Baker pg.1 1987). Beneath their large apartment was Fronz Rosenbaum's chemist shop.(Branden, Barbara pg. 4 1986). Rand's father was a serious man whom she never knew very well.(Branden, Barbara pg.4 1986). Ayn's mother, Anna Rosenbaum, was the opposite of her father and was very sociable. (Branden, Barbara pg. 4-5 1986). As a child, Rand did not have a true sense of affection with her father. (Branden, Barbara pg.5 1986). However, she did develop a strong bond of love with him as she grew older. (Branden, Barbara pg. 4 1986). Ayn did not get along well with her mother. (Branden, Barbara pg.5 1986). Although the Rosenbaum family was traditionally Jewish, it is said that Rand really did not have a religious upbringing. (Baker pg.2 1987). As a result, she became atheist as a child after coming to the conclusion that believing in God is degrading to humans in the sense that man should live for no one else but himself. (Baker pg.3 1987). Rand discovered a passion for upbeat, lively music which she began collecting on records. (Branden, Barbara pg.8 1986). By the time she was five years of age, she had two little sisters, Natasha and Elena. (Branden, Barbara pg.7 1986). As a whole, Ayn's childhood was not a pleasant experience for her; in later years it proved to be an unhappy memory as well. (Branden, Barbara pg.34 1986). Ayn Rand received a good education and learned to read and write at age six. (Baker pg.2 1987). She found her classes boring and too easy. (Baker pg.2 1987). This led her to begin writing simple short stories and novels. (Baker pg.2 1987). Rand's inability to fit in socially at school and her boredom with the education she was receiving led her to become somewhat of a recluse with one exception: her passion for literature. (Branden, Barbara pg.11 1986). Literature seemed to absorb Ayn more than any other thing; it intrigued her and gave her much pleasure to read and soon, to write. (Branden, Barbara p... ...ssionate goal--to create her ideal world and her ideal man. And at the end of her life--despite the odds against her, despite the pain and the losses, despite the illness and anguish and death--it was done." (Branden, Barbara pg.404 1986). "It's a benevolent universe, and I love it, and any struggle was worth it. Struggle or unhappiness are so enormously unimportant. I don't regret a minute of my life." (Branden, Barbara pg.404 1986 [said by Ayn Rand]). Rand led an eventful and memorable life. She inspired many with her novels and her philosophy. The world has gained tremendous insights and knowledge from the philosophy and intriguing novels of Ayn Rand. Bibliography: Branden, Barbara The Passion of Ayn Rand 1986 Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group Inc. New York, N.Y. Nathaniel, Branden Judgement Day: My Years with Ayn Rand 1989 Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, Massachusetts James T. Baker Ayn Rand 1987 G.K. Hall and Co. Boston, Massachusetts The Ayn Rand Column: A Collection of her Weekly Newspaper Articles Written for the Los Angeles Times. With additional, little-known essays by Ayn Rand 1971, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1991 Second Renaissance Books Oceanside, CA

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Philosophy 6: Ethical Issues in Business Midterm Essay Chase Novak Dr. Parker Need or Greed? New Protocol: How Drug’s Rebirth as Treatment for Cancer Fueled Price Rises Immanuel Kant-Kantian Deontology John Locke- The Justification of Private Property Adam Smith-Benefits of the Profit MotiveMilton Friedman- The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits Thesis: An examination of the case study New Protocol: How Drug’s Rebirth as Treatment for Cancer Fueled Price Rises relies heavily on a keen understanding of the social and economic implications of a capitalist system, and once taken into account it is clear that Celgene Corp. is justified in raising prices based on the business market philosophies asserted by Adam Smith, Milton Friedman, Emanuel Kant, and John Locke. Word Count: 1690Perhaps the most difficult situation in business arises when the indigent desire the product being sold. Political pressure is often put on the company to lower prices in order to accommodate the less fortunate consumer, however, this is in direct conflict with the company’s paramount goal of making the largest profit possible. Issues are increasingly complex given the supply-demand aspects of society and the incentive for production. For these reasons approaches to business that emphasize profit over availability can indeed help society in many ways.Upon the question of ethics one must view the entire market as a whole and the benefits of competition when deciding a fair price. An examination of the case study New Protocol: How Drug’s Rebirth as Treatment for Cancer Fueled Price Rises relies heavily on a keen understanding of the social and economic implications of a capitalist system, and once taken into account it is clear that Celgene Corp. is justified in raising prices based on the business market philosophies asserted by Adam Smith, Milton Friedman, Emanuel Kant, and John Locke.Celgene’s decision to raise prices is complex and though at first glance may appear to be fueled by greed it is in fact a necessary and beneficial step in Celgene’s continued production of the medicine thalidomide along with researching other medical advances. Celgene Corp. ’s decision to incrementally raise prices is justified by Adam Smith’s free market philosophy in which he describes competitive production as the main force behind societal development and improvement. Though there has been little affect to the cost of production for thalidomide, the nature of free market production dictated the rise in price.This, according to Smith is a natural element of the free market, â€Å"As every individual [†¦] endeavors as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value, every individual necessarily labors to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can† (Donaldson, 167). In t his quotation, Smith is explaining how every individual’s personal strive for success, in the form of production, helps to improve society as a whole.If each individual’s ultimate goal is to increase their wealth, and if increased wealth is sought through improved production, then the competition for wealth will undoubtedly result in improved production. Improved production can mean either cheaper manufacturing, resulting in lower costs for the consumer, or a better product, which will also help society. Smith continues on to say that this competition is self-perpetuating and that the profit made off of production is reinvested to further improve manufacturing. Evidence of this can be observed in the Celgene Corp. aising of prices on thalidomide which resulted in, â€Å"The ability to [†¦] fund the pharmaceutical industry’s research and development programs, which bring new medicines to patients† (Donaldson, 151). This can be further proven by the fa ct that Celgene’s R&D department uses almost half of the company’s revenue (Donaldson, 154). In this example, Celgene is able to provide consumers with newer and more effective medication as a result of its competitive pricing of thalidomide. Though many critics of Celgene would call the corporation’s decision to raise prices a genuinely greedy and selfish act, Smith sees nothing wrong with such a move.On this issue Smith states that an individuals self-centered motives often improve society: â€Å"By pursuing his own interests he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it† (Donaldson, 167). Given Celgene’s perceived self-centered actions, Smith would note that this type of free market behavior is positive and is guided by an â€Å"invisible hand† which helps such behavior to be beneficial to society as a whole. The next philosopher to be examined would argue that the â€Å"invisible h and† that Smith speaks of is indeed separate from the political realm.Milton Friedman continues with Smith’s line of logic as he asserts that the chief concern of the businessman must be to make a profit under socially acceptable means and that the defining of â€Å"social responsibilities† must be left in the political sphere. Celgene’s chief executive, John Jackson, was the primary force behind the company’s decision to raise prices. Jackson’s actions are perfectly ethical according to Friedman who writes, â€Å"What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a â€Å"social responsibility† in his capacity as a businessman?If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers† (Donaldson, 35). Jackson answers to a board that represents the stockholders of the company and it is his ethical obligation to them to make a profit. Celgene was losing m oney until 2002, which obviously necessitated an increase in price (Donaldson, 153). Jackson’s move to incrementally increase the price of thalidomide was not unethical because he has an obligation to stockholders to deliver a profit.Furthermore, Friedman asserts that it is not the corporate executive’s job to act as a moral entrepreneur as he is ill fit to do so. Friedman stresses that calls for executives to act â€Å"socially responsible† are unethical as socially impactful decisions, such as price adjustment, must be left up to publically elected officials with knowledge of the social and economic implications of such actions (Donaldson, 36). Friedman makes a vital point as it explains that the social responsibility falls on the public and its publically elected officials to enforce social justices through legislature.Therefore if the public desired Celgene to lower prices of thalidomide then it must require it to do so through law. Furthermore since no law exists requiring Celgene to sell thalidomide at a certain price, then Celgene is perfectly ethical and justified in raising its prices. If executives like Johnson adjusted prices according to their personal beliefs then huge portions of society would be heavily affected by such decisions and thus the public should reserve the right to solve such social dilemmas through democratic means in the form of law.Emanuel Kant’s philosophy of the â€Å"categorical imperative† also works to ethically justify the pricing of thalidomide by expressing the need for a universal standard of ethical practice. Though Kant would most likely desire a socialist utopia or at least complete universal healthcare, neither is realistic in the present day. In a Kantian society individuals would want free healthcare for everyone. No ethical issues would be in question if everyone received their entire healthcare for free.The result is a derived understanding of his categorical imperative, which ex plains a desired scenario in which on party acts onto another party in the same manner he himself wishes to be treated (Donaldson, 112). In this sense, under a capitalist system, Celgene is responding to the market by acting accordingly and raising its prices to increase production. The most basic element of ethics lies in John Locke’s philosophical explanation of product ownership and it works to prove Celgene’s right to raise its prices.At the very heart of business is the ownership of a private property which one elects to sell for a profit. According to Locke, God made the earth for man to exploit for his personal needs and thus it is logical that some men will not have common ownership of the land (Donaldson, 158). Locke’s philosophy on private property explains that man has the right to own property and that he alone can chose how to use his property. Using this justification, Celgene’s ownership of thalidomide entitles them to price it at any rate it sees reasonable.Moreover this justification is ethical because it comprises the sole force behind production. If corporations like Celgene cannot retain the right to ask for their own price for the products that they produce then there exists no incentive to produce. As a society we cannot force companies to produce essential information, technology, or medicine without an incentive. That is not how society works. Rather, our society is functions under an incentive-based system, which uses competition to provoke the best and brightest to produce the most important products for society’s use.If Celgene was made to sell their products at a price convenient for the consumer but crippling to the manufacturer then production would decline and society would falter. Thus to ensure continued production and quality corporations such as Celgene must be allowed to conduct business according to their best interests with regard to price. Society hinges on the expectation that companies will provide the food, goods, and medicine that it requires to function, however, certain elements must be in place in order to ensure the continued production of such commodities.As explained by Adam Smith, Milton Friedman, Emanuel Kant, and John Locke, society is improved by a free market system in which revenue from production is poured back into production to result in the overall improvement of society as a whole. Though some may see a raise in price as unfair, one must view such circumstances from the standpoint of the corporation, as business is a constant back-and-forth between the consumer and producer.The overarching ethical theme of the case study focuses on the need to provide the medical sector with the necessary profits to continue its research and development programs in the efforts of advancing the entire field for the betterment of society. This is surely an ethical endeavor. Works Cited: Donaldson, Thomas, and Patricia Hogue. Werhane. Ethical Issues in Business a Philosophical Approach. Upper Saddle River (N. J. ): Prentice Hall, 2008. Print.

Antisocial Behavior in One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest Essay

Antisocial Behavior in One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest I. Diagnosis of Randal McMurpy. A. Character assessment of Randal McMurpy played by Jack Nicholson in the movie. B. Description of Antisocial behavior. II. How it affects those around them III. What is the treatment (if any) is there for this disease. A. Is it treatable? B. What medications are prescribed, if any? C. What kind of aftercare treatment is available? Treatment The main character, Randle Patrick McMurphy, is brought to a state mental institution from a state prison to be studied to see if he has a mental illness. McMurphy has a history of serving time in prison for assault, and seems to take no responsibility for†¦show more content†¦Ã‚ · Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of alias, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure.  · Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.  · Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults.  · Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations.  · Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another. It is hard to first distinguish someone with this disorder because most of them are very friendly, outgoing, and have very likable personalities. Since they often feel no guilt or remorse they repeatedly leave behind a trail of friends, family, and unknown victims with a sometimes-irreversible damage of lies, manipulation, frustration and broken promises. The lack of moral or emotional development gives an antisocial person a lack of understanding for other peoples feelings. This enables them to be malicious and deceitful without feeling remorse about their actions. They are incapable of having long lasting, close, warm and responsible relationships withShow MoreRelatedOne Flew Over The Cuckoo s Nest2680 Words   |  11 Pages One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest Marissa Sobetski University of Michigan-Dearborn Abstract It is fairly often in pop culture that some form of entertainment focuses on some presentation of psychopathology; whether it is a novel, short story, pop-psychology book, or other media, such as film. The public seems to be fascinated by the â€Å"crazies† and their treatment. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, is one such film, this 1975 classic focuses on a character named Randle P. McMurphyRead MoreEssay on A Journey through the Schizophrenic World1834 Words   |  8 Pages and behavior† (â€Å"Schizophrenia†). People with schizophrenia may hear voices. Some believe that other people are reading their minds and controlling their thought process. This makes people with the disorder withdrawn and agitated. They may also not make sense while they talk and they can daze out for hours at a time. People with the illness can be seen as fine until they say what they are actually thinking(â€Å"Schizophrenia†). Paranoia is a major factor in their lives. Th is is seen in One Flew over