Global Warming Debate Essay

Many  people think that our concern about carbon dioxide and global warming is a modern preoccupation driven by the attention of high-profile personalities, politicians and green activists. But Al Gore did not discover global warming. Nor did Tim Flannery, Peter Garrett, Greenpeace or Malcolm Turnbull. Scientific concern about global warming is not new. A single scientific paper, published more than three decades ago, can place the discussions about climate change into historical perspective. Tomorrow it will be 35 years since the leading science journal Nature published a review paper entitled â€Å"Man-made carbon dioxide and the ‘greenhouse’ effect†, by the eminent atmospheric scientist J. S. Sawyer, director of research at the United Kingdom Meteorological Office. In four pages, Sawyer summarised what was known about the role of carbon dioxide in enhancing the natural greenhouse effect leading to warming at the earth’s surface, and made a remarkable 28-year prediction of the warming expected to the end of the 20th century. His prediction can now be compared with what has been observed. We can also compare his review of the science in the early 1970s with that in the latest (2007) assessment from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. After summarising recent calculations of the likely impact of increasing carbon dioxide concentrations on global surface temperature, Sawyer concluded that the â€Å"increase of 25 per cent in carbon dioxide expected by the end of the century therefore corresponds to an increase of 0. degrees in world temperature – an amount somewhat greater than the climatic variations of recent centuries†. Examination of the global surface temperature over the latter part of the 20th century shows that in fact the temperature rose about 0. 5 degrees between the early 1970s and 2000. Considering that global temperatures had, if anything, been falling in the decades leading up to the early 1970s, Sawyer’s accurate prediction of the reversal of this trend, and of the magnitude of the subsequent warming, is perhaps the most remarkable long-range forecast ever made. Sawyer’s succinct summary of the climate change science understood at that time can be compared with the four volumes of the IPCC Fourth Assessment on Climate Change being released through 2007. The IPCC assessment involves more than 400 authors, about 2500 reviewers, and runs to several thousand pages with many thousands of references. Such a comparison shows that much has been done to address the concerns and uncertainties expressed by Sawyer at the time. He was concerned that the rudimentary understanding of cloud processes and other climate system feedback resulted in uncertainties regarding predictions of warming. At the time, climate models were in their infancy, but Sawyer saw them as the best way to examine this feedback and reduce the uncertainties in climate change predictions. Since then, models have improved substantially and now include many more processes in more detail than was possible in the early 1970s, and the various climate processes that may enhance or offset the effects of carbon dioxide have been studied in detail. Despite these advances, our best estimate of the warming to be expected from a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has changed little from Sawyer’s time. Our best estimate of the temperature increase that would result from a 25 per cent increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations is still around 0. 6 degrees. The scientific consensus of Sawyer’s time was very similar to the scientific consensus in 2007. Of course, better climate models and improved data and analyses have allowed the IPCC to discuss and even project possible changes in many other meteorological variables than could Sawyer, including extreme weather of various kinds as well as sea-level. The IPCC now also looks in detail at regional aspects of climate change – a subject not even considered by Sawyer. Perhaps the greatest difference, however, is the emphasis on the impacts of climate change. While the IPCC assessment devotes a volume to this subject, Sawyer could only conclude, after conceding that climate variations of only a fraction of a degree can have â€Å"considerable economic importance† that â€Å"although there may be no immediate cause for alarm about the consequences of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, there is certainly need for further study†. Perusal of the IPCC volume devoted to the impacts of climate change on natural and human systems leaves one feeling far less sanguine than Sawyer was 35 years ago. The anniversary of Sawyer’s paper reminds us that the understanding of the effects of carbon dioxide on the global climate was sufficiently advanced 35 years ago to allow an accurate 28-year prediction of warming. Despite claims to the contrary, our understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming is not reliant on modern climate models and nor is it a modern preoccupation. Nor is it correct to claim that in the 1970s climate scientists were predicting global cooling – Sawyer’s paper accurately predicted exactly the opposite, based on the best science available. Other scientific papers around that time also drew attention to the warming expected from the anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gas emissions.

Selections from Annie John

The passage entitled â€Å"Selections from Annie John† was written by Jamaica Kincaid. In this extract it tells of the life of a young girl and her relationship with her mother. It begins with her stating clearly how being with her mother was an important part of her life. This was followed by narrating the things they did together. She would help her admirable mother to cook and clean. She then goes into detail of what and how things were done in regards to helping her mother with the cooking and cleaning. In the following paragraph she vividly describes her mother and briefly mentions her father. As the narrator is with her mother she tells of how they would spend time by her mother telling her stories of her past. During this past time is where the daughter showed her mother the most affection by leaning on her mother and sniffing her and gazing at her mothers’ beauty. She truly loved her mother for all that she was. As the excerpt progresses the narrator becomes a little older and goes through puberty. During this stage she begins to see new sides of her mother and herself; which, to the narrator were not good sides at all. She didn’t recognize the response she got from her mother as the same woman she grew up loving. Ultimately one day she was confronted by her mother one day coming home late from school. She tried to lie and her mother knew the truth and exposed it. Vicious words were exchanged and in the end this love she had for her mother as a youth has slowly been deteriorated. Her mother ends her rebellious thoughts with a comment that makes the narrator go deep into thought and realises that there is going to be a gap between her and her mother after this day. This extract is a very good example of difficult it is to maintain relationships with parents. I clearly agree with Kincaid’s idea. Her idea shows how easy it is to admire and have good relationship with your parents for years and how one moment can destroy all that was built. All forms of admiration you can have are presented in the passage. The description of the bond between the persona and the mother seems to be unbreakable. How Kincaid presents the theme is very effective. Who would have thought after all the praise of her mother and time with her it would end in that way. It was a shocker. It allowed me to feel bad for the young girl. This also shows how a young person’s disrespect to a parent can negatively impact the way the parent looks at the child. When the daughter said â€Å" well like father like son. Like mother like daughter. † If it wasn’t for that act of disrespect her mother would have probably scolded her and tell her how to do right. After that if I was a parent I wouldn’t even care about helping that child anymore. A lot of young people who are going through puberty think they have already â€Å"made it† and become very disrespectful at times. This can be seen in any teen. I can say this because I was the same way. For every negative comment towards me, was a response to justify or nullify what was said. It’s normal for teens to be rebellious during this maturity stage. This was another bonus for Kincaid to have me on her side. This situation more than likely happens every day. It’s real. On the other hand it also shows how each one of us will mature and we will be treated differently. Not only Kincaid’s passage shows the difficulty in maintaining relationships with parents but it is also an eye opener to young adults as to why we were treated like that at our age. We must learn that as we get older we change and we must act accordingly. This is another serious factor that Kincaid presents. The changes in youth during their adolescence age when these changes occur to the body are quite serious for young children. They don’t know what to do or how to treat these changes. I am fortunate enough to be a boy so my changes weren’t anything too drastic to get help with. However for young girls they have to worry about a lot and as Kincaid present this it is an issue I think is very important for girls to be taught to expect and treat with care. This may also be a reason as to why the subject of Kincaid passage acted in such a manner. Over all the issue kincaids passage presents are all relevant and informative if you read to take what is occurring into consideration.

A Critical Analysis Of “The Send Off” By Wilfred Owen Essay

This essay intends to examine the poem â€Å"The Send Off† by Wilfred Owen. Owen wrote this poem while he was stationed at Ripon army camp. He was based there after being a patient at the Craiglockhart War Hospital, this is where he met Robert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon. Owen was at Ripon between March and June, 1918 and died in action on the fourth of November 1918. â€Å"The Send Off† is a poem about some troops that have just come from a sending off ceremony before departing by train, presumably to the frontlines of World war One. The poem has many themes running through it. Some of these are death, strangers, flowers, secretiveness and healing. The poem opens with a very claustrophobic first line – â€Å"down the close, darkening lanes they sang their way† The words ‘down’, ‘close’ and ‘darkening’ provide the reader with a feeling of doom, claustrophobia and fear of uncertainty. The image of going ‘down’ provides the reader with the images of death, darkness, being buried, walking the trenches and going to hell. This opening line also provides a rather prophetic image of people being sent to concentration camps, by train, in World War Two. Further enhanced by ‘siding shed’. From the phrase â€Å"they sang their way2 there is an opposed feeling of happiness to the claustrophobia. However, the singing changes from happiness when the poem is read again and the other themes are considered. Flowers are the next prominent theme displayed in this poem. They appear in line four, stanza one and line fifteen, stanza three. â€Å"Their breasts were stuck all white with wreath and spray As men’s are, dead.† The flowers are described as white and in wreath form, the reader may imagine in this line that white lilies are associated with funerals. The language in this line gives the impression that the troops are covered in white flowers  and that the flowers are ‘stuck’ to their ‘breasts’ as in a coffin. This is further enhanced by the abrupt end to this line ‘dead’. The impression is that the soldiers are predresseed for their own funerals. â€Å"Nor there if they yet mock what women meant Who gave them flowers.† In this line the poet is asking if the women, who gave the troops the flowers, realise that the flowers are symbolising the reality of the horrors and the almost certain death that these troops are going to face in the frontline. The theme of funerals is picked up again in stanza two – â€Å"Dull porters watched them, and a casual tramp Stood staring hard,† The strangers, the porters, tramp, guard and women are all watching the troops, covered in flowers march from their army camp to the train station. The troops, in deliberately, are predressed for their funeral and there are no apparent cheers or voices in the poem as they depart, they are leaving silently, secretly and this leaves the reader feeling that it is a funeral convoy passing by and that the troops are experiencing foreboding of doom and may well be resigned to their fate on the frontlines. â€Å"They sang their way dimly gay† further shows that the troops are resigned to their fate and are singing their way to almost certain death.. interestingly, there is a large amount of secretiveness throughout this poem. It is first apparent in stanza three – â€Å"So secretly, like wrongs hushed-up, they went.† This line makes the reader question why the troops are departing so secretly, then in line thirteen the phrase – â€Å"We never heard to which front these were sent.† Shows that the troops and general public were not aware of where the troops would go to fight, or what the true nature of the realities would be when they got to their destination and that the public were not made aware of these realities and truths, in fact it was concealed from them. The secretiveness is also mentioned in stanza two, lines nine and ten – â€Å"Then unmoved, signals nodded, and a lamp Winked to the guard.† Here the theme of secretiveness is displayed through the imagery of the signals nodded and a lamp winked, the reader feels conspiratorial messages conveyed through Morse code. In the last stanza the secretiveness theme appears again, but this time, it is linked with the return of the soldiers. This stanza implies that only a few of these soldiers are likely to survive the war and return to their homes. However, they will ‘creep back’ implies that the soldiers may not wish to return as heroes and may need to heal themselves both mentally and physically. In conclusion â€Å"The Send Off† by Wilfred Owen starts off as a poem about a sending off ceremony towards the end of the war but in fact goes on much deeper to discuss the differences between what people at home perceive the war to be and the actual realities that the soldiers face at the frontlines. The last stanza hints at healing, and suggests that those few soldiers who do return may wish to do so silently, and not as heroes, and may not wish to discuss the realities and horrors that they have experienced. Thus, the  title is rather ambiguous.

Religion in SouthWest Archaeology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Religion in SouthWest Archaeology - Essay Example vides significant information relating to American Indian societies in the Southwest and their occupation as well as their ways of life before the colonial period. These societies comprised of significant diversities with changing adaptations with archeologists ensuring piecing together field as well as laboratory information in enhancing explanation of American Indian oral histories. The earliest inhabitants of the American Southwest while also touching on the current Mexican north are referred to as American Indians or Paleo-Indians that represents a combination of various Indian cultures. With little knowledge relating to their way o life known, archeological records have enhanced inn providing information relating to their way of life while also drawing the differences resulting from various communities (Mark and Livingood 193). in understanding the earlier way of life of the Paleo-Indians, archeological studies have realized that these communities made simple tools, with the help of flint knapping or stone chipping while also making other crude tools that included pointed elements derived from animal bones. Other tools discovered resulted from wood as well as horns with little artifacts evidencing these tools. Tools developments are equally evidenced with the use of spears among the Paleo-Indians that played a significant role to ensure changing of the way o f life among these natives. The discovery of the spears ensured changing of practice from primary forages to some primary but big hunters with their major prey being mammoths, horses and camels among others. The most possible practice of the hunters would mostly focus on waylaying the animals and use the spear to prick and drive the spear on the animal‘s flesh until the animal fell. The spear points as well as other found artifacts, extinct huge game associations as well as site distribution among other evidence, archeologists has as a result postulated that the ancient Southwest natives wandered, but

The Role of IMF and The World Bank in helping countries to overcome Essay

The Role of IMF and The World Bank in helping countries to overcome their economic problems - Essay Example This paper describes the activities, performed by the IMF and the World Bank, in order to ensure sustainable growth of the world economy, financial stability and to reduce to some degree negative developments, such as poverty and unemployment. The issue of global economy is no doubt a critical element in today`s world. An economy is essential in micro and macro levels in order to sustain communities. In order to sustain the financial well-beings of countries, banks have been established to facilitate the process of a healthy economy. The World Bank and IMF are two of the largest institutions that are a critical component towards the vitality of underdeveloped countries. The IMF ensures the stability of the global finance system by regulating exchange rates, analyzing devaluations, and overseeing balance of payments.The IMF works on a â€Å"quota basis† in which a nation’s contributions are based on its weight in the international economy. The more â€Å"quotas† that a nation possesses the more borrowing capacity it has. Under-developed countries are able to seek and receive aid. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) enables the World Bank to examine the financial being of the well-being of the nation that is in need of assistance. The Bank also has a sub-committee known as the International Development Association. The IDA facilitates the bank process of allocating resources to certain programs. The aim of the bank is to use CPI in order to assess how conductive a country’s policy and institutional framework.

The Cider ahouse Rules Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Cider ahouse Rules - Essay Example The movie contains many poignant and touching moments in it that lend itself for psychological analysis. For example, from a developmental psychology viewpoint, the fact that Homer is returned twice to the orphanage was bound to leave deep scars on the formative psyche of the young boy, who would struggle to form lasting attachments to other humans as a consequence. Also, the manner in which he was treated by these couples was also abusive to a degree. These abusive relationships interrupt Homer Wells’ proper psychological development as is evident from further events in the story. The relationship between Dr. Larch (played by Michael Caine) and young Homer needs to be studied in the afore-mentioned context. Despite getting trained to perform abortions (under the tutelage of Dr. Larch) Homer personally disapproves of the practice. This comes to a dramatic fore when he is faced with a situation in which Erykah (the daughter of Mr. Rose) comes to him for abortion. But considerin g that Erykah was forcefully and incestuously impregnated by her own father, Homer makes an exception to his usual rule and performs the operation. The true character of Homer’s psychological makeup further comes to light when he resorts to kill Mr. Rose in order to prevent Erykah getting raped again.

Current Macroeconomic Situation in the U.S Research Paper

Current Macroeconomic Situation in the U.S - Research Paper Example This paper is one of the best examples of the thorough analysis of the macroeconomic situation and the most pressing economic issues in the US. The 2007/08 economic downturn culminated in major socioeconomic problems all over the world. The United States was affected in a similar way like other countries globally. The economic recession of 2007/08 culminated in a number of macroeconomic problems. The United States was grappling with issues of increased inflation and unemployment. The two stood at approximately 4% and 10% respectively. The increased administration cost has been blamed for the challenge. The ministry of defense has for instance been said to spend billions of dollars annually putting more pressure on the economy.. The country is still grappling with issues of increased mortgage loans which have denied citizens an opportunity to own houses. However, the gross domestic product (GDP) has remained fairly stable despite changes in the economy. Two main monetary policies will be used to address the issues of unemployment and inflation. The expansionary and contractionary monetary policies are used in the mitigation of unemployment and inflation respectively. Apart from monetary policies, fiscal policies may be used as well. This mostly refers to the government’s revenue collection and spending which latter affect the economy. For instance, increased inflation would force the government to apply the contractionary fiscal policies. Under this, the spending of the government would be under check

Full case study in Jobber, D. and Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2012) Principles

Full in Jobber, D. and Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2012) Principles and Practice of Marketing (7th ed). London, McGraw-Hill H - Case Study Example This would reveal the extent to which the company followed the formal process of marketing planning. Dixons was a product oriented company when it stated its journey in electrical retail segment. Their followed the strategy â€Å"stack-em high – sell-em cheap in brightly coloured stores.† This strategy validated the fact that Dixons focused more towards selling good product in well-designed stores, but customer satisfaction was overlooked and it did not occupy centre position in the strategic approach of the company. A general formal marketing planning process is segregated into four parts that is goal setting, analysing present situations, create marketing strategies and allocate the marketing monitoring system and resources. In the goal, setting segment companies set their mission and objectives. Dixons also established its mission to stock products and sell them in brightly coloured stores. Their objective was to offer variety of products and generate lucrative retur ns. However, the company missed customer service, which its competitors took advantage of. So it can be said that Dixons followed the first step of marketing planning process. The second step is to analyse current situation. The company came to know about its drawbacks during the economic crisis in 2006. It identified that there were major threats of recession in the global market and its competitors Best Buy started grabbing market share by providing better services to customers. At this juncture, Dixons revolutionised its move towards customers. This proves that the company followed the second step of marketing planning process too. The third step is to create marketing strategies, which Dixons rolled out in order to face the intense competition. It can be also called a transformation strategy of the company because it changed the focus of the company from being product oriented to customer oriented. The new business model also re-defined five specific objectives for the company. The fourth and final stage was to allocate resources and monitor the plan. The major focus was now on after-sales and support and customer choice, value and service was the major function in the new business model. This discussion proves how Dixons followed and applied marketing planning process for devising the strategies (Jobber and Ellis-Chadwick, 2012). Another superior marketing strategy that the organization applied is the integration of technology in their marketing strategy. In the company’s service-led business model the internet was a core component of the customer insight. Gay, Worth and Esen (2007) point out that online marketing is a superior tool for marketing in a technology driven society. In online marketing, Dixon employed a multi-channel approach to allow customers to research about the organization order their desired good, reserve and even purchase goods. To reach to this approach, the organization noted that those people who purchased goods online prefer red to collect them by themselves at a later date. Consequently, applying a multichannel approach provided a customer value method by allowing them to have a flexible purchase plan in the company. The success of this strategy can be associated with the global trends of internet penetration that is growing each day. By developing an information rich website, it is possible for an organization to roll out their products to their target customers

How much Gas is Preduced Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How much Gas is Preduced - Essay Example The reaction proceeds as follows: In this experiment one can see that two moles of HCl react with one mole of magnesium to produce one mole of each MgCl2 and H2. Since the product H2 is gaseous in nature, one can safely assume that if the reaction proceeds at standard temperature and pressure (273K, 1 atm) the volume of one mole of H2 produced will be 22.4 litres. Also, one mole of Magnesium will have the mass in grams equal to its molecular weight i.e. 24. Therefore, the mass of magnesium used in the reaction can be converted into the number of moles of magnesium used in the reaction, for e.g.  The Pressure sensor was used in the experiment to calculate the pressure at which the volume of gas was to be computed. Other equipments used in the experiment were weighing balance, tongs, measuring cylinder, flask, test tubes, stop-cock, glass-tube etc. The materials used in conducting the experiment were moderately diluted HCL and powdered Magnesium. The diagram of the apparatus is given as follows: The mass of Magnesium used in the reaction is measured by the weighing scale and the volume of HCL is measured by the measuring cylinder keeping in mind that the pressure required is 0.5 atm. The acid is sufficiently diluted so as to have a smooth reaction as the reaction between Hydrochloric Acid and Magnesium is exothermic i.e. a lot of heat is evolved. Also the gas produced Hydrogen creates a lot of fizz in the flask. When combining the reagents into the flask, care must be taken that none of the gas being produced escapes when adding the reagents together, before sealing the container. Therefore, we add hydrochloric acid in the flask first followed by Magnesium and instant sealing of the flask so as to prevent the escape of any hydrogen gas. The gas is attached to a pressure sensor by a glass tube which records the pressure

What characteristics and events in Chinese history prevented China Essay

What characteristics and events in Chinese history prevented China from becoming a world power before 1949 - Essay Example This paper will outline some of the main contours leading to the Chinese rise of economic superiority over the western civilization prior to the 19th century, after which it will be possible to account for the rise of the western civilization from the eastern origins. From as early as 1078, historical records indicate that china was the world’s major steel producer, thereby outweighing the British as producers of steel. Apart from this production, it is also possible to determine that China was leading in international trade, thereby possessing the largest commercial ships, which had the capacity of transporting 3,000 tons worth of goods. By 1750, it is possible to determine that China’s per capita income could probably match that of Great Britain since they had a stable economy, technological developments and high agricultural yields. From this point, the Europeans and British manufacturers were able to follow China’s lead thereby borrowing and assimilating its advanced technology mainly for the penetration of the Chinese lucrative and advanced market. The western conquest of the East was militaristic, and they justified their conquest to with its non-reciprocal economic relation with their trading countries overseas. On the other hand, China’s predominance was on the basis of reciprocal benefits with its overseas trading partners since the country’s rulers were accustomed or relied on their superiority in production, banking skills and sophisticated commercial skills (Rosenthal et al, 36). In contrast, the western nations were relying on military conquest, destruction of competitiveness, and tariff protection. Consequently, it is possible to determine that the British were not hesitant in exterminating some of the communities that were resistant to their policies. With their inability to invade the Chinese market by great economic competitiveness, the British relied on military power in their conquest, thereby leading armed

Crash Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Crash - Movie Review Example From this paper it is clear that the Character of Persian delivery man is also subjected to racism due to his profession of a domestic worker. Even Cameron and Christine a well off black couple faces racism. According to â€Å"Cameron and Christine are a black well off couple. They experience stereotyping and racism when they are driving home from a party†. On the way, they were harassed by a white police officer who ran fingers on Christine’s body and Cameron felt helpless. Also Farad a Muslim shop owner in the movie faces discrimination as he is Muslim and it was a time prior to 9/11 terrorist attack.Also Graham, a black police officer with Hispanic woman called Rita tells his mom that he is with white woman which makes her angry.This study outlines that the discrimination due to class is also evident in the movie. Jean being a woman from upper class looks down upon all minorities. She looks at blacks strangely and shows offensive attitude as she walks down the street . We can see that she also acts badly to her maid servant who is black. Even with Mexican locksmith who was Hispanic she reacted in an offending manner. She blamed the locksmith for being a gang member and a potential threat. Also the shop owner Farhad who is from a working class has to live in a neighborhood with no security where his daughter was almost shot.  The movie depicts that whites are superior class and this can be evident in the scene where the white producer tells the black actor to act dumb to make him look more like a black man.... As per ( Blunt) â€Å"Because this is a movie about connections, some of the most painful moments in Crash show classism and racism supporting each other in people's personal lives†. The movie depicts that whites are superior class and this can be evident in the scene where the white producer tells the black actor to act dumb to make him look more like a black man. The movie also shows the distinction between the rich and poor class. Here in the movie, Jean and her husband are rich and afford luxurious car but poor farhad a shop owner is struggling to live in a scary neighborhood. He keeps a gun to save himself from Hispanics and blacks. Also the movie shows, the Chinese slaves who are imported to US. So in the movie there is upper class, middle class and even slaves. Gender roles are also portrayed in many scenes along the movie. In the beginning , when Jean and husband are walking on the street and when she finds two black men coming towards them, Jean hold on to her husband which shows the traditional role of male as a protector. Although he is not armed, society’s traditional view is depicted in the movie where a man is a protector and women in need of protection. Another example is where, Jean and husband in career with traditional gender role notion. Rick, the husband is an Attorney while she remains a housewife. Here, the roles reinforces male as a â€Å"breadwinner† and woman as a â€Å"domestic†. Another scene which showcases gender roles is when Cameron and Christine are stopped by the police while driving home. Here there is depiction of male versus female struggle which is much obvious in the society. The female is sexually assaulted by Ryan, a police officer while her husband watches helplessly. Although, this instance has racism, the gender

Using Affirmative Action to Promote Womens Essay Example for Free

Using Affirmative Action to Promote Womens Essay The empowerment of persons who are vulnerable and excluded, promotion of social justice and equity are the main concerns of social policies, and this should transcend all aspects of society, including participation in governance and decision making. Inspite of the pivotal role women in Ghana play within the family, they are invisibly represented in governance and decision making sector of the economy. This is because there is no concrete policy measures in place to ensure that the structural inequality between men and women are taken into account in promoting participation in policy decision. Efforts are being made at various levels to address the marginalization of women in Ghana’s politics and other spheres of life, but this still remains an area of concern. In a country where women constitute about 51 percent, their involvement in development issues and political leadership should be of grave concern, and given due consideration. Affirmative action Policy is therefore viewed as the appropriate instrument to enhance women’s participation in governance and decision making in Ghana. This paper will therefore review women’s participation/empowerment in Ghana; outline various commitments seeking to enhance women’s participation in Ghana; the Affirmative Action Policy and finally look at expected outcomes of the Affirmative Action Policy and how it will enhance women’s participation in Ghana. WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN GHANA Although there is no law in Ghana that prevents women from participating in politics or in areas of Ghana’s economic or social life, women are generally under-represented in politics and in public life. There seems to be no long term strategic framework put in place to address this failure. This has been attributed to a lack of political will and a deficient commitment to gender equality among political parties. Gender advocates have asked that government and its agencies, political parties and relevant public and private institutions should take actions that ensure and assure their active commitment to improving the current situation of women’s low representation in politics and public appointive positions at all levels.

Effect Of Moisture Contents And Storage Temperature Citrus Seeds Biology Essay

Effect Of Moisture Contents And Storage Temperature Citrus Seeds Biology Essay King et al. (1981) determined that the longevity of various citrus seeds improved as the storage temperature and moisture contents of seeds were decreased. The lemon, lime and sour orange dried up to 5 % moisture contents and stored at -20 Â °C suffered no significant decline in viability within the storage period of seven months for lime, lemon and sour orange respectively. Nayer (1981) examined that seeds were extracted from Duncan grapefruit, pineapple, sweet orange, Troyer citrange and rough lemon fruits and these seeds were treated with different fungicides. These seeds were then stored moist, surface dried after 1-16 days of drying at room temperature. All four citrus cultivars showed delayed germination due to drying at different regimes for different durations. With Duncan grapefruit, seed stored moist was 80 % germination twenty days before surface dry seed and some were killed by two days drying. At the other extreme, rough lemon seed survived 16 days drying with out loss of viability and germination delay was not grater after 16 days than after 1-2 days drying. Saraswathy et al. (1997) studied three tropical fruit species believed to recalcitrant seed storage behavior, Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), rambai (Baccaurea motleyana Muell.- Arg.) and jelentik (Baccaurea polyneura Hook. f.). Their seeds showed no dormancy and they germinated more easily and more quickly. At the time of harvest, the moisture contents (fresh weight basis) were 53.54, 51.20 and 44.90 % for G. mangostana, B. motleyana and B. polyneura respectively. G. mangostana seeds lost their viability when their moisture contents fell to about 24 % while B. motleyana seeds lost their viability below 35.5 % moisture contents. However, for B. polyneura the seeds could be dried to low moisture content with high survival percentage. The viability was still high when the rates of moisture contents were reduced to 13.46 %. At this moisture content, the germination percentage was 91.76 % and it was found that the seeds survived cryopreservation with 8.3 % viability. They also vary greatly in their size. Seeds of G. mangostana are larger than Baccaurea seeds and thus, more sensitive to the desiccation tolerance. Seeds and embryonic axis structure may play a very important role in desiccation sensitivity. Fu et al. (1994) reported that the desiccation tolerance in two species with recalcitrant seeds: Clausena lansium (Lour) and Litchi chinensis (Sonn.) was studied. They resulted that the mature seeds were less sensitive to desiccation than the fully mature ones while the embryonic axis of the same stage were more tolerant of desiccation than whole seeds. Aslantus and Pirlak, (2002) reported that the germination capacity of strawberry pollen increased in low temperature. However, germination percentage of 4Â °C and fresh pollen was almost in first week. Pollens that were stored at 4 Â °C showed low 53.40 % germination percentage in early weeks but the rate of germination was further decreased quickly and up to 48 weeks the rate of germination percentage was 20.10 %. Conclusively the range of temperature and humidity are the major influencing factors in pollen behavior of different conditions. Pollens that were stored at -60Â °C showed better results and these pollens showed 60 % viability after storing for 48 weeks. The most successful factor for pollen conservation is the storage temperatures and moisture contents of material, lowering of both temperature and humidity tends to increase the period of viability. Ganeshan (1986) studied the cryopreservation of papaya pollens in liquid nitrogen (-196 Â °C) and found that the pollen cryopreserved for 485 days retained their viability and germination percentage as high as fresh pollens were germinated in vitro. Pollens stored for 300 days could effect normal fertilization, producing fruit and seed set on a par with controls, indicating no major loss of fertility. Pollen samples exhibited high tolerance to direct freezing at ultra low temperatures un-controlled thawing to ambient temperature and re-freezing back to cryogenic temperatures, when viability was determined after storage. This method of preservation would be more profitable for breeders and gene banks involved in conserving genetic recourses. Normah and Serimala (1995) reported that citrus aurantifolia seeds can be successfully cryopreserved at -196 Â °C after desiccating them to a moisture content of 12.93 % (50% viability) while seeds of C. halimii presented only 25 % viability after cryopreservation at moisture contents of 9.5 %. The Seeds of C. hystrix are highly sensitive to desiccation as they failed to germinate when the moisture contents were reduced to 27 % and thus did not survive cryopreservation. The embryonic axes of the three Citrus species gave higher percentage of survival after cryopreservation. Survival rate was 100 % in C. aurantifolia and C. halimii embryonic axes with moisture contents of 9-11 % and 16.6 % respectively. With C. hystrix axes, the highest survival rate obtained that was 60 % at a moisture content of 11.04 %. The cryopreservation methods were further employed for the embryonic axis of C. hystrix. There was no improvement in the survival percentage obtained. Khalil (1999) observed that unstratified seeds of Troyer citrange, (C. volkameriana) lime cultivars Balady and Rashidi and sour orange were extracted during January. (1) Seed fresh weight (2) Seedling emergence and vigor as affected by seed weight, seed density and soaking in IBA. The comprehensible differences were observed in seed weight and uniformity and the range of its distribution. They also determined that the large and high density seeds were associated with high rates of emergence of seedling. Radhamani et al. (1991) stated that the seed coats usually acted as a mechanical barrier for the germination of the seeds which was improved by removing it in all the seven citrus species tested namely limes, lemons, mandarins, sweet orange, sour orange and pummelos. The surface characteristics of the seed coat were examined using SEM and surface structure differed in the various species under study. A correlation between the thickness of seed coat and their rate of germination was found in these species. Chilembwe et al. (1992) reported that commercially processed seed of different citrus cultivars. The seeds were used as the effect of hydration and priming on the rate of germination. Seeds which were soaked in aerated water showed increased germination rates and emergence rates compared with that of un- soaked seeds. The soaking of seeds at 35 Â °C temperature enhanced these differences rather than at 25 Â °C. Priming seeds in solution of PEG 6,000 was not successful as germination and emergence percentage were lower than soaking in distilled water. Polat and Kaska (1992) studied the impacts of stratification at 4 Â °C for 30 days on germinations for the seeds of Loquat cultivars Gold Nugget and Tanaka. Stratification markedly increased the rate of germination percentage of seeds, resulting in 98.75 % germination. Un-stratified but chilled seeds demonstrated 68.75 % germination, while untreated and controlled seeds show 63.75 % germination. Stratified seeds germinated more rapidly than the seeds which were untreated. Kadam et al. (1994) reported that viability and rate of germination percentage of ciotrus limonia seeds were examined during the storage period for up to six weeks in the open air or in polythene bags at room temperature (90 % RH) and storage temperature 10 Â °C (45 % RH). Both were declined during the storage periods but this decrease was least for seeds stored at 10 Â °C +45 % RH. Dument and Berjak (1995) described that the recalcitrant seeds were generally larger and show much curtailed longevity even if stored hydrated. They also determined minimum water content tolerated by embryos of five recalcitrant species and their subsequent survival after cryopreservation. Roberts et al. (1999) reported that the citrus seeds have practically recalcitrant seed storage behavior, because they are highly sensitive to desiccation (cryogenic) temperature condition. Usually it was desirable for long term storage conservation of seeds. More recently, it has proved that citrus seeds have not been considered to be truly recalcitrant, as they can tolerate desiccation to some extent. However, their tolerance is limited and varies from species to species and variety to variety. Citrus seeds are some what intermediate between orthodox and recalcitrant seeds and can be named as non orthodox. Hong and Ellis (1995) stated that there are differences in seed storage behavior among species particularly within the genus. Seeds of C. Robusta and C. libercia were tested for germination following desiccation and storage for up to one year at -20Â °C with 5-13 % (robusta) or 5-14 % (liberica) moisture content. Viability was lost more quickly during storage conditions the lowest the temperature below 15 Â °C and the lowest moisture content 11.3 %. Seeds of C. liberica were more sensitive to desiccation. Only the 6 % surviving rate was obtained to desiccation with 13.5 % moisture content. It is concluded that C. libercia showed recalcitrant seed storage behavior but that C. robusta shows an intermediate seed storage behavior. Evidence is variation in seed storage behavior with in the genus Citrus and the intermediate category is discrete rather than a continuum between orthodox and recalcitrant. Effect of Plant Growth Regulators on Citrus Seed Germination Burger and Hackett (1982) observed that Valencia orange seeds did not germinate when the fruits were harvested during the early November, while seed from November harvested fruit stored at 3-4 Â °C for 21 days germination was 100 %. An equivalent germination response was obtained when seeds from fruits were extracted in April. They were also examined when treatment of IBA reduced about 50% germination in seeds from non cold treated fruits. Burger (1983) reported that germination of sour orange seeds air dried for more than 1 day was delayed and the rates of germination were decreased. A naphthalene-acetic acid soaked seeds reversed the effect of drying and resulted in taller seedling with stem dry weight. But stratification and a water soak did not reverse the undesirable effect of air drying. Edwards and Mumford (1983) informed that the seeds of citrus aurantium were stored in a range of different substances including fruit juices, phenols, growth regulators, and a kind of fungicides and solutions of high osmotic potential. The effects of these substances on germination at 200 Â °C and on viability of seeds stored at 40 Â °C over long periods were examined. Low temperature 4 Â °C alone was more effective and more valuable than any of the substances in preventing germination or growth in storage and had no adverse effect on germination percentage. The survival rate of imbibed seeds at 4Â °C was best in 10-2 M NAA. The germination imbibitions at 25 Â °C were incomplete with all the substances, and there was significant loss of viability. Ramos et al. (1997) reported that the immature fruits contain larger number of seeds than mature fruits. The seeds were removed from immature fruits, 10 to 12 weeks after anthesis of Citrus sunki and disinfected with 1 % NaOCl for 20 minutes before placing on Murashige and skoog medium. After 40 days at 25 Â °C with a 16-h photoperiod at 3,000 lux, showed that the highest germination percentage rates (8 %) corresponded to an NAA concentration of 0.68 mg/L. The concentration of benzyladenine in this trial was inadequate to stimulate satisfactory development of the immature seeds of cv. Sunki. Kalita et al. (2002) determined the effect of plant growth regulators (PGRs) gibberellic acid, IBA, IAA and NAA at different concentrations (200, 400, 600 and 800 ppm) on citrus reticulate seed germination. Plant growth regulators (PGR) treated seeds required only fewer days for germination than distilled water treated seeds (control). Treatment with 600ppm IBA recorded the shortest time (19 days) required for germination. This was statically at par with 800ppm IAA, 600 and 800ppm GA3 (21, 20 and 21 days respectively). Treatment with 800ppm NAA recorded the highest germination percentage (86.6 %) which was statistically at par with 600ppm IBA (80 %). The control treatment recorded the lowest germination percentage (33.33 %). The highest leaf number (7) was recorded upon treatment with 800ppm IBA. The control treatment recorded the lowest leaf number as compared to the PGR treated seeds. Parsad and Rekha (1991) observed that the seeds of three strains of Rangpur lime and acid lime were irradiated at the amount of 6-2KR and germination rates were compared with that of the control one. A significant decreased in germination rates were occurred with increasing the exposure of 50-60 % at the semi lethal dose level. The radiation sensitivity was of chief importance in the mutations program. Rao and Singh (1992) reported that hydration-dehydration treatments with tanic acid and benzoic acid increased the percentage of the germination in black gram and green gram, while compared with water soaked and dry seeds. Dhillion et al. (1993) examined that hybrid seeds from 6 citrus cultivars crosses, dried and sown in polythene bags filled with a mixture of farm yard manures (FYM) and sand during the month of August. Seeds of seven combinations failed to germination. The highest seed germination percentage (74.4 %) was gained with the Ludhiana selection + Lime Attari cross. Leonel et al. (1994) accounted that seeds extracted from mature and ripe fruits on 5th May, washed in running tap water and then dried under shade for a week, stored at 4-5 Â °C until 16 September. Then these seeds were soaked in water in various solutions of growth regulators for 24 hrs. The seeds were germinated at 25 Â °C under white light on filter paper moistened with distilled water. The germination was evaluated after every two days. Data was calculated and tabulated on the number of germinated seeds, germination percentage, average germination time and average rate. The differences were observed between different treatments but germination was highest (97 %) following treatments with phenylmethylaminopurine at 20mg/L. Raju and Sivaprakasam (1994) deliberated that the effects of the treatments with fungicides, bactericides, hot water on the viability of cabbage cultivars. September seeds were judged promptly after treatment and after storage under ambient condition for 3 or 6 months. Seeds treated with carbendazim at the rate of 2g/Kg, hot water at 50Â °C for 30 min or thiram at the rate of 2g/Kg had higher germination percentage (mean values for the 3 assessments of >80 %) than the control (71 %). Normah et al. (1997) observed that desiccation sensitivity of seeds of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), rambai (Baccaurea motleyana) and jelentik (Garcinia polyneura). These were known as tropical fruits species believed to have recalcitrant seed storage behavior. The seeds showed no dormancy, they germinated easily. At the time of harvesting, the moisture contents were 53.54, 51.20 and 44.90 %. The seeds of Mangosteen (G. mangostana) lost their viability when their moisture contents fell to about 24 % while B. motleyana seeds lost viability below 35.5 % moisture contents. However, for B. polyneura seeds could be dried to low moisture contents with highest survival rate. The viability was still high when the moisture contents were reduced to 13.46 %. At this moisture content, the germination percentage was 91.76 % and it was found that the seeds survived cryopreservation with 8.3 % viability. For B. polyneura axes, the los of viability when their moisture contents fell to about 36 % , while for B. polyneura axes viability was reduced to 33.67 % when the moisture is 27.30 %. So it was concluded that the seeds vary in degree of desiccation sensitivity. Dussert (1999) determined the seed desiccation sensitivity in nine species of the genus Coffea by measuring seed viability after equilibration and various saturated salt solutions. The results showed that Coffea is a suitable material for studying desiccation sensitivity. Leonel and Rodrigues (1999) reported that the citrus limonia seeds were extracted from ripe fruits, washed with tap water, air dried and then these seeds were stored at 4 Â °C for 12 days. After storage these seeds were then treated for 24 hrs with KNO3 0.1 % at the rate of different concentrations. The evaluations were observed and conducted at 5 days interval, starting 15 days after sowing. The statistical analysis showed that the growth regulator treatment did not enhance seed germination and those treatments with KNO3 at 0.1 % and 0.2 % inhibited the germination of seeds Tokeshi et al. (1999) reported that the supply of energy of seeds decreases during the germination periods. The survival percentage of the seedlings probability increases if the germination period of seeds is reduced. The potential of seedling survival is called vigor which can be determined from the speed of emergence. The effective micro organisms (EM) have plant growth regulator action like Naphthalene acetic acid. The speed of emergence was evaluated in tangerine cv. Coleoptra seeds treated with metalaxyl for 30 minute before sowing. The speed of emergence of the EM treatment was superior to the control one. The growth promoter effect of EM was best during the initial four days of emergence of the seedlings. In comparison of 40 days old seedlings, the EM treated seeds produced larger plants than that of the control treatment. Hong et al. (2000) stated that the viability of Norway maple seeds collected 21 days before mass maturity (68 % moisture content) and at mass maturity (65 % moisture contents). Their viability was reduced from 52-85 % to 7 % if dried rapidly to 4-5 % moisture contents. Effect of storage on seed moisture contents King and Roberts, (1979) stated that viability of citrus seeds is greatly affected by drying for different time periods, viability being decreased when the moisture contents were reduced to some extent. Citrus seeds have been usually classified as recalcitrant seeds as some species loss their viability when the moisture contents are reduced below 10 %. Recalcitrant seeds normally originated from certain moist areas where the seeds are not exposed to drying before germination. In their natural habitat, conditions are often favorable for instantaneous germination and the seeds do not require long term storage conservation. Richards, (1952) reported that the seeds of musk lime (C. macrocarpa) lost their viability at different storage regimes, at high temperature and at the low moisture contents in a few days. Teng and Hor, (1976) reported that the seeds of country lime (C. aurantifolia) lost their viability and moisture contents after 7 days when they were stored at 20-25Â °C. Mungomery et al. (1966) determined that the viability of citrus seeds can be maintained in storage regimes when the moisture content is high and the range of temperature is 5-10 Â °C. Barton, (1943) reported that sour orange (C. aurantium) seeds deteriorated in a short time at the moisture contents of 80 % and a temperature of 5 Â °C, but rough lemon (C. limonia) seeds were still viable at the moisture contents of 56 % and at a temperature of 5 Â °C after 500 days. The seeds of C. grandis were viable at the moisture contents below 10 % (Hanjo and Nakagawa, 1978) and the seeds of grapefruit (C. paradise) and mandarin (C. reticulate) were viable after 80 days stored at 14.1 % and 10 % moisture contents respectively at a temperature of 4.5 Â °C (Mallareddy, et al., 1977). Mumford and Grout, (1979) indicated that citrus seeds can be stored in dry condition for different time periods. Recently experiments have shown that C. limon seeds remained viable for 20 days stored at a moisture content of 1.2 % at room temperature, provided that the testas were removed from the seeds before drying. The advantages of storing dry seeds are significant in practical terms since a very little space is occupied by the dry seeds and they are easier to handle and maintain free from micro- organisms, but there is insufficient evidence to data to suggest that all citrus species can be stored in this way. Cameron and Soost, (1969) reported the fact that the seeds responded differently to dry storage when their seed coats were removed. The seed coat may be an important factor in seed preservation. It is known that the seed coat generally is one of the major and important factors that generally influenced seed germination. Citrus seed coats can be easily distinguished into three layers, the mucilage, the testa and the tegmen. The outer seed coat or testa is tough and is covered by mucilage. The tegmen is a thin and papery layer of seed. Their roles are not still well understood. Removing the testa usually accelerate the germination of the seeds. In their natural habitat, these layers are likely to protect from the dehydration until environmental conditions are favorable for better germination of citrus seeds (King and Roberts., 1979). Hortmann et al. (2001) reported that the rate of germination of the Seed is greatly influenced by many factors, which include type of substrate, environmental factors such as oxygen, water and temperature and for some plant species, light. Effect of Desiccation on Citrus Seeds Wood et al. (2000) concluded that desiccation results in the induction of dormancy rather than reducing the seed viability and showed that heat shock (4 hours at 36Â °C) followed by low temperature (26CÂ °C) could be used to break the dormancy. Wood et al. (2000) determined the effect of desiccation and temperature on germination capability of Papaya seeds. More than 50 % of freshly isolated cleaned but un-dried seeds germinated at 26 Â °C. However, desiccation to approximately 20 % relative humidity reduced the rate of germination percentage at this temperature to less than 10 %. A substantial increase in the rate of germination at alternating temperature (33/19Â °C) indicated that desiccation induces seed dormancy rather than viability loss. Doijode (1998) reported that the seeds of Kaghzi lime with 6.6 % moisture contents were packed in aluminoum foil laminated pouches under partial vacuum and then these packets were filled with nitrogen and carbon dioxide. These packet were stored at -20, 5, 15 Â °C and ambient (16-35 Â °C) temperature. There was no germination of seeds which were stored under ambient temperature after 6 months of storage while their viability was retained for 24 months in low temperature. Seed viability was initially affected due to desiccation injury. Pritchard et al. (2004) reported that the first challenge for the long term conservation of seeds of desiccation sensitive species is to determine their response to desiccation tolerance. This can be achieved either by the routine processing of seeds for long term conservation and identifying species more actively by specific, targeted screening that fail to survive or by fully characterizing the response to dehydration of individual species ( Hong and Ellis, 1996). Using these approaches, approximately 540 species with desiccation sensitive seeds have been identified (Flynn et al, 2004), although it has been estimated that this trait could be present in an approximately 8 % (20000 species) of the world flowering plants (Dickie and Pritchard, 2002). As it is unlikely that all of these species will ever be identified through experimental determination, a second approach to desiccation tolerance investigation is needed that identifies reliable and robust correlate of seed desiccation, leading to the development of a predictive frame work for seed storage responses. A number of studies have determined potential correlation of seed desiccation sensitivity, including seed mass (Hong and Ellis, 1998; Dickie and Pritchard, 2002; Pritchard et al., 2004), seed shape(Tompsett, 1984,1987; Hong and Ellis, 1997, seed moisture content at shedding (Hong and Ellis, 1998), seed germination rates, seed allocation to physical defence (Pritchard et al., 2004; Daws et al., 2005) and both gross and local scale habitate variables (Hong and Ellis, 1998; Dussert et al., 2000; Tweddle et al., 2003; Pritchard et al., 2004; Daws et al., 2005). Rate of dehydration greatly effects desiccation tolerance of recalcitrant seeds. This effect is presumably related to two different stress factors: direct mechanical or physical stress factor because of the loss of the water physiochemical damage of tissues as a result of metabolic alterations during drying. Liang and Sung (2002) determined a new theoretic approach to represent these two types of stresses and investigated how seed tissues responded differently to two stress vector, using the model of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) embryonic tissues dehydrated under various drying conditions. Cumulative desiccation stress increased sharply under slow drying conditions, which was also detrimental to embryonic tissues. This quantitative analysis of the stress time response relationship helps to understand the physiological basis for the existence of an optimal dehydration rate, with which maximum desiccation could be achieved. Hong et al. (2001) determined that storage behavior and longevity of seeds of lemon (C. limon) and sweet orange (C. sinensis) following desiccation between 14 and 4 % moisture contents. They also observed the hermetic air dry storage for up to 914 days at temperature between 15 and -20 Â °C up to 6 days in liquid nitrogen (-196 Â °C). The results conformed that both the species showed intermediate storage behavior that is between Orthodox and recalcitrant. Air dry storage environment require care to obtain maximum longevity of seeds. The seeds of sweet orange were highly sensitive to desiccation tolerance and less than 25 % of seeds were survived more than 210 days at 5 Â °C and 8.7 % moisture contents. The most advantageous air drying environment for the medium storage of the longer lived lemon seeds was 5Â °C and 7.5 % moisture contents. Fu et al. (1994) reported that desiccation tolerance of Clausena lansium (Lour.) seeds was highest at 67 days after anthesis (DAA). When they tolerated air- drying for 9 days: 74 DAA was measured as physiological maturity and their full viability was only maintained for up to 3 days of drying. Over ripened seeds (88 DAA) had the lowest desiccation tolerance. In Litchi chinesis (Sonn.) the desiccation sensitivity of seeds at 98 DAA (fully mature) was higher than that at 84 and 91 DAA (less mature). Role of Seed Drying Methods on Citrus Seed Behavior: Saipari et al. (1998) determined the effect of air and silica drying on seed germination percentage and viability, field emergence, seedling growth and water absorption patterns in citrus species. P. trifoliate was the most sensitive to seed drying while C. grandis and C. karna were fairly tolerant to seed drying. Seed viability scored on the basis of tetrazolium staining was slightly higher but paralleled the germination percentage in laboratory and seedling emergence. There have not been appropriate methods for drying of seeds. The drying of seeds has major effect on the quality of the seed. Pachy et al. (2003) designed an experiment to determine proper drying techniques in order to improve the seed quality of citrus seeds. There were three drying methods namely sun drying, 40Â °C hot air oven and using silica gel as the moisture absorbent. Initial seed moisture content were determined and recorded. Seed samples were quickly dried until it reached to the moisture contents of 20, 15, 10, and 5 % respectively. Standard germination tests, vigor tests by accelerated aging technique, viability tests by tetrazolium chloride test were used. It was observed that drying with silica gel result 57 % germination rate, 92 % in viability test and 38 % in vigor test. Hot air oven drying method provided 47 % in germination, 90 % in viability test and 29 % in vigor test. The result of two previous methods can maintain the viability of citrus seeds but can not spr out may be due to chemical inhabitant of seeds. While the sun drying method result poorest quality of the seeds which were 30 % in germination rate, 85 % in viability and 19 % in seed vigor. The use of sun drying system has provided highest temperature which generally makes them unsuitable for small scale drying harvested seed crops. Silica gel can reduce the relative humidity below 40 % and then removed the seed moisture contents. Therefore, drying with seed moisture absorbent was the best result and sun drying was the poorest method of drying seeds. Sangakara, (1995) reported that the drying citrus seeds under shade and ambient temperatures maintained germ- inability to greater extent than when the seeds are desiccated in ovens. Silica gel drying method was first used by the Pritchard et al. (2004) for safe and effective dehydration of seeds. Six or seven aliquots of seeds were placed in polythene bags with an equal mass of freshly regenerated silica gel desiccants. The bags were then placed in an incubator at 26 Â °C and periodic reweighing of the seeds, separated from the silica gel, allowed target masses and hence the moisture contents to be obtained. Maximum drying times varied from 6 d, for Sclerocarya birrea, to 35 d for Syzygium cumini depended on the time required for the seeds to reach3-7 % moisture contents. Edwards and Mumford (1985) dried up the seeds of sour orange in streams of air and some of its constituents gasses which were O2, N2 and CO2 at 25-40 Â °C. The seeds lost their moisture contents at different rates in the different gasses at the same temperature and showed marked variation in the rates of germination. The intact seeds dried at a rate of 30 % moisture loss per 100 hrs in a rapid air current showed the best viability. Chemical composition of Citrus seed Prill et al. (1949) determined the effect of chemical compounds and organic acids on the germination of the seeds and growth of seedlings. Evenari, (1949) mentioned that fruit juice of C. aurantium, C. limon, C. maxima and C. nobilis contain a substance that inhibit the germination of the seed of citrus. The effect of these acids and chemical compounds on the germination of citrus seeds and the effect of a sudden change in their concentrations on the physiology of seed has not been explored. Cohen, (1956) and Monselise (1959) provided the evidence for the existence of the inhibitors in the seed coat of citrus seeds. They showed that when the seeds of citrus were soaked in water, the resulting solutions inhibited the germination of weed seeds and suggested that this effect might be caused by the presence of inhibitor substances in the seed coat of citrus such as phenolic contents. Van buren, (1970) reported that the chemical compounds like protein, fats, sugars, phenolics, enzymes are widely distributed in plant, particularly in fruits. The amount of these compounds per fruit usually decreased as the size of the fruit increased. Among these compounds phenolics are the major inhibitors for the germination of seeds after ABA. Ulrich, (1970) reported that when citrus seeds are removed from the fruits there was a remarkable change in their environment because the pulp and juice of the fruit are very rich in organic acids and chemical compounds like protein, fats, sugar and lipids. These compounds are usually dissolved in the water either free or in combination with salts, esters or glycosides. In lemon juice the citric acid is 60-90 % of the total soluble sugars (Wolf, 1958). Devlin, (1975) determined the effect of dehydration on the seed coat that has not been still investigated, and it is possible that the viability of the seed is reduced during drying due to change in the nature of the seed coat which in turn effect the embry

Effect of Alpha-galactosidase on Digestive System

Effect of Alpha-galactosidase on Digestive System Janaaron Aquino    The Effect of the Enzyme, Alpha-galactosidase inside Beano, on the Digestive System Problem To use the alpha-galactosidase enzyme in Beano to examine the effect of the enzyme in the digestive system at different temperatures and to find the glucose concentration at those temperatures which represents the efficiency of the enzyme under the various temperatures. If different temperatures of Beano solution are tested, then the temperatures closest to human body temperature will extract more glucose than other temperatures because of the fact that the human body has adapted to operate at an optimum temperature. Background The human body has several complex systems that fulfill essential goals the human needs to survive. Each system has a different procedure for the body and works individually or with other systems to perform that action. One of the human body systems is the digestive system. There are several steps that come into play when discussing the system, but in short, the  digestive system turns the food that humans eat into energy. In the digestive system, parts and organs include salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Digestion is the breakdown of large food particles into smaller molecules that are easy to absorb into the bloodstream (Gureco, 2015).This experiment focuses solely on the transfer of glucose from food consumed into the body. What does this food do for the human body? The path of the food being digested is as followed. When food enters the mouth saliva helps break it down. It goes down the esop hagus and enters the stomach where it is broken down further by acid in order to be able to extract nutrients from the food. It enters the small intestine where the nutrients are absorbed and goes through the large intestine where water is absorbed in order to create a stool (defecation) so that it can exit the body via the anus. Digestion occurs in which the rate and extent of sugar release from available carbohydrates, by simulating physiological processes occurring in the mouth, stomach and small intestine (Woolnough, 2010). The focal point of this experiment is to examine the glucose concentration with the help of alpha-galactosidase which all takes place in the path of digestion. To start off, the food (or food solution) used in this experiment was a solution of broken down refried beans. The enzyme Beano was used specifically for this experiment because, as the name suggests, Beano is made specifically for digestive assistance with beans. Beans have a tendency to cause stress in the human digestive system. The Beano was used with the refried beans to digest the beans easily. This allows an easy pathway for the glucose to be broken down and for the human body to absorb the glucose. According to a journal abstract written by RJ Levin, The glucose, galactose, and fructose produced are absorbed across the e nterocytes [cell of the intestine] of the upper half of the villus [increase of surface area in order to absorb more nutrients] (Levin, 1994) In more specific terms, foods are carbohydrates called oligosaccharides. In the case of this experiment, refried beans were used as the oligosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are groups of two to ten monosaccharides bonded together to form the carbohydrate. When entering the body, the enzyme called salivary amylase (most commonly known as human saliva) starts the chemical process of digestion of food. The enzyme breaks down the oligosaccharide carbohydrate polymers into monomers called monosaccharides. When oligosaccharides are broken down by digestion, a monomer called monosaccharides are produced. This is because multiple saccharide polymers are broken down into a simple sugar. Included in a humans digestive system are living microbes in the large intestine that carry out the process of breaking down the carbohydrates. These microbes in human in testines are necessary because the body needs to break down the food into monosaccharides to obtain the nutrients needed for processes such as cell repair, growth, and most importantly energy. The breaking down of the oligosaccharides are essential because The biological roles of oligosaccharides appear to span the spectrum from those that are trivial, to those that are crucial for the development, growth, function or survival of an organism (Varki, 1993). However, the refried beans mentioned have starch in which these microbes produce an uncomfortable and bloated feeling like the aforementioned stress that beans cause. Although the following experiment was done on a different species an abstract suggests that mammals that consume soybeans may suffer from a gastrointestinal hypersensitive reactions involving major disturbances in digestive functions (Sissons, 1982). The use of Beano in this experiment examines the effect of the alpha-galactosidase at varying temperatures as the inde pendent variable which assists the digestion of refried beans. The alpha-galactosidase is used to pinpoint the temperature in which glucose concentration is high or low as the dependent variable. Data  and  Observations      Ã‚   Figure Results  and  Discussion The graph illustrates several temperatures in which the solution of Beano and refried beans were tested. Similarities and differences can be observed across multiple of the Beano solution mixtures at the varying temperatures. Some of the lines that represent each temperature stand out more than others. It can clearly be seen that relatively high temperatures of the refried bean solution and Beano cannot extract much glucose from the solution itself. High temperatures that did not have a high glucose concentration included temperatures that ranged from 60oC to 90oC whose maximum glucose concentration did not reach over 0.50%. This outcome can also be predicted for any temperature higher than those experimented with because if 90oC did not extract any glucose, anything higher will do the same. The same outcome can be seen with the lesser temperature of 30oC, in which the concentration of glucose did not reach over 0.50% in the course of 25 minutes. Relatively high and low temperatures of refried bean and Beano solution extracted glucose at a lower rate or did not extract any glucose at all. In comparison, two temperatures of the solution stood out more than the others. The Beano solution skyrocketed at temperatures of 40oC and 50oC. It is clear that these two temperatures were different from the others. The reason behind it? Well the optimum temperature for digestion ranges from 37oC and 44oC. Relatively close to the aforementioned temperatures of the solution, is it not? This is because body temperature is approximately 37oC and this is the temperature in which the body functions best. Temperature gets too hot? Humans get a fever. Temperature gets too low? Humans start to internally develop hypothermia. Both indicate that the body is not fully functional. The temperature of 37oC is closer to 40oC than it is to 50oC. Figure 1 indicates that the Beano solution at 40oC had a higher slope which exemplifies the fact that digestion works best when near the body temperature of approximately 37oC. According to a news website, The body has sensors with memory, or its linked to the brain, and immediately it sense the food in the stomach has temperatures and pH outside the optimum range, it uses the energy and acids stored in the body to regulate the right conditions for the optimum digestion. This further exemplifies why the Beano solution of 40oC and 50oC worked best compared to the other five temperatures. The experiment proves the efficiency and effectivity of alpha-galactosidase inside Beano impacts the rate of glucose concentration of refried bean solution at varying temperatures of 30oC to 90oC. Analysis Oligosaccharides are groups of two to ten monosaccharides bonded together to form a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are found in all foods that a human consumes. They consist of the sugars, starches, and fibers found in food and are made primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When oligosaccharides are broken down by digestion, a monomer called monosaccharides are produced. This is because multiple saccharide polymers are broken down into a simple sugar (monosaccharide). The enzyme called salivary amylase breaks down these carbohydrate polymers called oligosaccharides into monomers. Salivary amylase, which is also known as saliva, breaks down starch when chewing food. As food is consumed, saliva inside the mouth starts the process of digestion by breaking down the food as humans chew. This allows the food to be broken down for glucose extraction and also breaking down the food for the esophagus. If food were not to be chewed, it cannot enter the esophagus and if it does, it will be difficult to swallow which can lead to respiratory injuries. In the human body, intestines have microbes that fulfill certain needs for the digestive system. These microbes in human intestines are necessary because the body needs to break down the food into monosaccharides to obtain the nutrients needed for processes such as cell repair, growth, and most importantly energy. In all, digestion is essentially important because of the advantages it gives to us in the form of energy. Without the energy produced from consuming, a human body cannot be fully functional. In the experiment, the enzyme, Beano, worked most efficiently at a temperature of about  40oC. As mentioned in discussion, this is because the optimum temperature for human digestion is approximately 37oC. That temperature is linked to the brain as a the human body temperature in which the human body operates at its best. Beano working most efficiently at 40oC can be explained because that temperature is approximately body temperature. Other varying  temperatures are not quite as efficient as body temperature because the human body breaks down glucose at its best. On the contrary, Beano worked least efficiently on the refried beans at an approximate temperature of 90oC. The reason behind this is that 90oC is way too hot for digestive organs to obtain nutrients. In turn, glucose cannot be absorbed which explains why the line in Figure 1 which represents 90cC did not increase throughout the course of the entire twenty-five minutes. Alpha-galactosidase is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that is inside Beano extract to make it work. The enzymes in Beano helps with digestion, bloating, and reducing gas by increasing the rate of digestion. In the experiment, Beano was mixed with refried beans to increase the rate of glucose extraction from the beans. Refried beans were used because the starch inside the beans is difficult to digest which causes troubles such as methane gas (farting). The Beano was used with the refried beans to digest the beans easily. Another reason why the refried beans were used is because the enzyme, Beano, was created specifically for beans as beans are foods that are typically difficult to digest. When experimenting with different independent variables, it is better to have all lines on the same graph. Why? Well the graph of Figure 1 was used to compare different glucose concentration at different temperatures. Mentioned several times before, about 40 degrees Celsius worked best because it is body temperature. In this case, the line that represented 40oC can be compared to the other varying temperatures because of the fact that all of the lines were put on the same graph. In a lab very similar to the Beano experiment, peas were used instead of refried beans. The lab had the same concept and measured glucose concentration over time. Instead of using different temperatures for each line, the peas were differentiated by 25% pea extract solution,  50% pea extract solution, and 100% pea extract solution. All three solutions were tested at a temperature of 25oC. Each line increases as opposed to the lines of Figure 1 because it does not include temperature and it is different solutions being digested over time. It can be concluded that the 100% solution was digested the best. References Varki,A. (1993). Biologicalrolesof oligosaccharides:allof thetheoriesarecorrect[Abstract]. GlycoBiology.RetrievedDecember20, 2016, from http://glycob.oxfordjournals.org/content/3/2/97.short Sissons, J. (1983). Effectsof soya-beanproductson digestiveprocesses inthegastrointestinal tractof preruminantcalves[Abstract].41(1), 53-53. RetrievedDecember20, 2016, from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/div-classtitl eeffects-of-soya-bean-products-on-digestive-processes-in-the-gastrointestinal-tract-of-prerumina nt-calvesdiv/829E6E65CF3E213E31E10230E100A3C8. Levin,R.(n.d.). Digestionandabsorptionof carbohydratesfrommoleculesandmembranesto humans.[Abstract].ClinicalNutrition.RetrievedDecember20, 2016, from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/59/3/690S.short Gureco.HumanDigestiveSystem DigestiveEnzymes andDrinkingColdWaterafterMeal. (2015, June 24). RetrievedDecember20, 2016, from http://hubpages.com/health/Human-Digestive-System-Digestive-Enzymes-and-Drinking-Cold-W ater-after-Meal Woolnough. 1.W. (2010). The Effect of a Brief Salivary a-Amylase Exposure During Chewing on Subsequent in Vitro Starch Digestion Curve Profiles. Retrieved December 21. 2016. from http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/8/2780/htm

A Comparison of Heart of Darkness and Facts Concerning the Late Arthur

Heart of Darkness and Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family    Knowledge Leading to Insanity in H.P. Lovecraft's "Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family" and the influence of Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness"    "Science, alrady oppressive with its schocking revelations, will perhaps be the ultimate exterminator of our human species-if separate species we be-for its reserve of unguessed horrors could never be borne by mortal brains if loosed upon the world." --H.P. Lovecraft, "Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family"    Both texts, "Heart of Darkness", and "Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family" are about the limits of the human mind.   Some are able to contain powerful universal truths and some are not.   Lovecraft, twenty-one years after the publication of "Heart of Darkness", uses it as a partial basis for the exploration of the dangers of Darwin on the human psyche.   Therefore, I explore Conrad's imagery and ultimate purpose in order to show how it is repeated in Lovecraft's story.    European progression into Africa can be summarized as attempting to draw a straight line to the center.   In "Heart of Darkness", Conrad gives two important   descriptions of European exploration to support seeing it as a linear, penetrating movement.   One is the importance of rivers in exploration, which I will discuss in more detail.   The other is one of the European managers description of the ideal goal of the stations on the river:   to each link up in a line and ferry civilization and goodness into Africa.    Turning to rivers, they appear first when Marlow is discussing the blank spots on the map.   He says that these yellow spaces are filled... ...s lineage back to its origin led Arthur Jermyn straight into death, just as extending the line of stations into the Congo led Kurtz into death.   Twenty-one years after the publishing of "Heart of Darkness", its effect on the perception of Africa can be clearly seen.   Lovecraft is an American commercial author, without the colonial perspective of a 19th century English author, so his appropriation of Conrad is based solely on the power of the text.   Together, both stories make a very powerful statement on the true state of the average human being and what his or her mind might be capable of understanding.    Works Cited    Conrad, Joseph.   Heart of Darkness.   1899    Lovecraft, Howard Phillip.   "Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family."   Dagon and Other Macabre Tales.   Arkham House:   Sauk City, WI.   1965.   orig. pub. 1920.   pp 73-83

Psychos in our mist :: psychopathic behavior

For most of us the idea of a psychopath conjures up images from movies like "Silence of The Lambs" and characters with names like "Hannibal Lector." Fortunately characters like Hannibal don’t really exist. Serial killers and people involved in ritual torture are rare, but psychopathic behavior is more common than you might think. I have known several psychopaths in my life. The clearest case involved an older teen who had no sense of guilt. He could learn the rules, but he had no sense of conscience. The only thing that saved him was a mother who loved him, took him to counseling for years and spent a great deal of time patiently teaching him right from wrong. I remember a conversation where he told me, "People know when something is wrong because it feels wrong. I have to remember or be reminded that stealing from someone is wrong. I don’t feel bad if I take something." Meeting this young boy changed my opinion of a psychopathic personality. Why? Because children with this condition are "emotionally blind." And while I do not excuse cruelty or criminal behavior, I have sympathy and appreciate how hard it is for some people to learn how to act responsibly. Without help, potentially psychopathic children will become adults who never remain attached to anyone or anything for long. They may end up living a "predatory" lifestyle, feeling little or no regret, and having little or no remorse - except when they are caught or about to be locked up. A psychopath is not necessarily a bad person. But they are prone to have problems with society, rules, expectations and relationships. A psychopath will use people for excitement, entertainment, to build their self-esteem and they invariably value people in terms of their material value (e.g. money, property, comfort, etc..). They can involve and get other people into trouble quickly and they seem to have no regret for their actions. To date there is no checklist of behavior and symptoms that will tell you with certainty whether or not a person is a psychopath. But there are warning signs. The following warning signs are based on my experience but primarily research conducted by Robert Hare, Ph.D - the leading expert on the Psychopathic Personality. Characteristics of a Psychopath superficial charm self-centered & self-important need for stimulation & prone to boredom deceptive behavior & lying conning & manipulative little remorse or guilt

Non-duality: Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen Essays -- Religion, Buddhis

Buddhism first developed in India by Siddhartha Gautama as a means to end suffering. Nirvana could ultimately be achieved with adherence to the Four Noble Truths and the middle way. The Mahayana tradition arose within Buddhist with different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings and new ideals. It emphasized the role of the bodhisattva and the bodhisattva path as the means to attain enlightenment, or Buddhahood. The nature of the Buddha is no longer equivalent to that of the arhant, rather, he is beyond the level of the arhant; he is a transcended being. Within Mahayana, Madhyamika and Yogacara philosophical schools developed in India and the Zen tradition arose once Buddhism spread to East Asia. While Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen emphasize several different concepts in an effort to attain enlightenment, all three adhere to the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness and non-duality. At the core of the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness lays in the early Buddhist belief in anatman, or no self. There is both a spiritual and material part to human nature, but it is the â€Å"moral identity that survives death and is reborn† (Prebish and Keown 56). The concept of anatman eliminates attachment to the material by claiming that an individual has no real core, or soul, and the five skandhas, or aggregates of attachment, namely the material form, feelings, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness, provides evidence. â€Å"It is held that none of the five skandhas are able to exist in the absence of the other four† (Hershock). Desire is one of the main causes of suffering, and the five aggregates are the objects of desire. Dependent origination holds that everything is conditioned and â€Å"lack intrinsic being of their own† (Prebish and Keown 49)... ...anslation can be seen in translating emptiness. If emptiness is translated as upaya, or skillful means, then emptiness is a way of eliminating attachment to all views by criticizing them much like Nagarjuna does. â€Å"Emptiness potentially can liberate or trap one further into greater conceptual illusions† (Low 133). The trap occurs when the view is not is not ultimately true. Enlightenment is central to Buddhism; it is a form of freedom. Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen have different ways of interpreting the different stages of enlightenment, but they all hold that the realization of enlightenment means having the wisdom to view reality in its natural form. All sentient beings and dharmas are empty and free from the subject-object dualism. Once the individual understands the impermanence of reality, the individual has attained wisdom and therefore enlightenment. Non-duality: Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen Essays -- Religion, Buddhis Buddhism first developed in India by Siddhartha Gautama as a means to end suffering. Nirvana could ultimately be achieved with adherence to the Four Noble Truths and the middle way. The Mahayana tradition arose within Buddhist with different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings and new ideals. It emphasized the role of the bodhisattva and the bodhisattva path as the means to attain enlightenment, or Buddhahood. The nature of the Buddha is no longer equivalent to that of the arhant, rather, he is beyond the level of the arhant; he is a transcended being. Within Mahayana, Madhyamika and Yogacara philosophical schools developed in India and the Zen tradition arose once Buddhism spread to East Asia. While Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen emphasize several different concepts in an effort to attain enlightenment, all three adhere to the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness and non-duality. At the core of the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness lays in the early Buddhist belief in anatman, or no self. There is both a spiritual and material part to human nature, but it is the â€Å"moral identity that survives death and is reborn† (Prebish and Keown 56). The concept of anatman eliminates attachment to the material by claiming that an individual has no real core, or soul, and the five skandhas, or aggregates of attachment, namely the material form, feelings, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness, provides evidence. â€Å"It is held that none of the five skandhas are able to exist in the absence of the other four† (Hershock). Desire is one of the main causes of suffering, and the five aggregates are the objects of desire. Dependent origination holds that everything is conditioned and â€Å"lack intrinsic being of their own† (Prebish and Keown 49)... ...anslation can be seen in translating emptiness. If emptiness is translated as upaya, or skillful means, then emptiness is a way of eliminating attachment to all views by criticizing them much like Nagarjuna does. â€Å"Emptiness potentially can liberate or trap one further into greater conceptual illusions† (Low 133). The trap occurs when the view is not is not ultimately true. Enlightenment is central to Buddhism; it is a form of freedom. Madhyamika, Yogacara, and Zen have different ways of interpreting the different stages of enlightenment, but they all hold that the realization of enlightenment means having the wisdom to view reality in its natural form. All sentient beings and dharmas are empty and free from the subject-object dualism. Once the individual understands the impermanence of reality, the individual has attained wisdom and therefore enlightenment.

Education System In The Middle East

The public instruction system in Egypt consists of three degrees: the basic instruction phase for 4-14 old ages old: kindergarten for two old ages followed by primary school for six old ages and preparative school for three old ages. Then, the secondary school phase is for three old ages, for ages 15 to 17, followed by the third degree. Education is made compulsory for 9 academic old ages between the ages of 6 and 14. Furthermore, all degrees of instruction are free in any authorities tally schools. Harmonizing to the World Bank, there are great differences in educational attainment of the rich and the hapless, besides known as the â€Å" wealth spread. † Although the average old ages of school completed by the rich and the hapless is merely one or two old ages but the wealth spread reaches every bit high as nine or ten old ages. In the instance of Egypt, the wealth spread was a modest 3 old ages in the mid1990s [ Overall, the composite instruction Index in the MENA Flagship R eport: The Road Not Traveled showed promising consequences of Egypt ‘s comparative educational accomplishments. Of the 14 MENA states analyzed, Egypt achieved the cosmopolitan primary instruction and has besides reduced the gender spread at all degrees of direction, but there is still a demand to better the quality of instruction. Promotional scrutinies are held at all degrees except in classs 3, 6 and 9 at the basic instruction degree and the classs 11 and 12 in the secondary phase, which apply standardised regional or national tests. The Ministry of Education is responsible for doing determinations about the instruction system with the support of three Centers: the National Center of Curricula Development, the National Center for Education Research, and the National Center for Examinations and Educational Evaluation. Each centre has its ain focal point in explicating instruction policies with other province degree committees.On the other manus, the Ministry of Higher Education supervises the higher instruction system. There is besides a formal instructor ‘s making path in topographic point for basic and secondary instruction degrees. The instructors are required to finish four old ages of pre-service classs at university to come in the instruction profession. Specifically with regard to teacher ‘s professional development to raise mathematics, scientific discipline and engineering instruction criterions, the Professional Academy for Teachers offer several plans. Local instructors besides take portion in the international professional preparation plans. Get downing in 2007, the Ministries of Education, Finance, and Local Development ( and others ) started informal treatments to experiment with the decentalisation of instruction. Working groups were established to do more formal proposals. Proposals included thoughts for get downing with recurrent outgos, utilizing a simple and crystalline expression for transporting out financial transportations, and doing certain that transportations would make the school itself. During 2008 design was carried out, three pilot governorates ( Faiyum, Ismailia, and Luxor ) were chosen, and monitoring and capacity edifice procedures and manuals were agreed upon. The expression is rather simple, and includes registration, poorness, and phase of instruction as drivers. During 2009 support was decentralized all the manner to the school degree, and schools began to have support. As of late 2009, the pilot showed few if any jobs, and the expected consequences were happening rather good, in footings of exciting community engagement, leting schools to pass more expeditiously and measure their ain precedences, and increasing the earnestness of school-based planning by making a agency to finance such programs, among other expected consequences. An informal appraisal of the pilot revealed that the support expression money precipitated an addition in community contributions. The study consequences show that the ratio of the average values of community contributions of the pilot twelvemonth to the old twelvemonth was 2.20. Parallel to these attempts in the instruction sector, other sectors ( for illustration, certain facets of lodging and municipal services ) in Egypt are be aftering to deconcentrate decision-making and disbursement, now nation-wide ( withou t a pilot phase in limited governorates ) , in a phased attack. Education programs to be one of the lead sectors in this procedure. In add-on to administrative and fiscal decentalisation, there is an increasing accent on affecting elected local popular councils ( which exist at governorate and territory degree ) in the horizontal inadvertence of outgo and planning across the decentralizing sectors, and as they come on watercourse in the decentalisation procedure. Within the instruction sector, as of late 2009 programs are being made to deconcentrate certain lines of support and planning for capital equipment and substructure, in all governorates, all the manner to school degree in the instance of smaller units of capital equipment, or degrees higher than the school for points such as new substructure. The instruction sector does anticipate to go on to utilize the original 3 pilot governorates as a particular observatory to measure and understand how good the procedure is continui Government SchoolsBy and large talking, there are two types of authorities schools: Arabic Schools and Experimental Language Schools.Arabic Schools, provide the governmental national course of study in the Arabic Language. A governmental English linguistic communication course of study is taught get downing at first Primary twelvemonth and French is added as a 2nd foreign linguistic communication in Secondary Education. Experimental Language Schools, teach most of the authorities course of study ( Science, Mathematics and Computer ) in English, and adds Gallic as a 2nd foreign linguistic communication in Preparatory Education. An Advanced English linguistic communication course of study is provided in all Educational phases. Social Studies are taught in Arabic. Students are admitted into first class at age seven ; a twelvemonth older than Arabic schools. Private Schools By and large talking, there are four types of private schools: Ordinary schools, their course of study is rather similar to that of the authorities schools, but the private schools pay more attending to the pupils ‘ personal demands and to the school installations. Language schools, teach most of the authorities course of study in English, and add Gallic or German as a 2nd foreign linguistic communication. They are expected to be better than the other schools, because of the installations available, but their fees are much higher. Some of these schools use Gallic or German as their chief linguistic communication of direction, but it may be hard for the pupil to analyze in governmental universities in Arabic or English subsequently. Religious Schools, are sacredly oriented schools as Azhar schools or Catholic schools. International Schools, are private schools that follow another state ‘s course of study, like a British, American, or Gallic system, and the grades earned from them acquire official enfranchisement from the Ministry of Education, to be eligible to inscribe in Egyptian universities, such schools offer even better installations & A ; activities than regular private schools with higher fees, but are criticized to be supplying a much easier instruction degree compared to the general course of study, and some Egyptian universities require higher classs than those of regular schools pupils as a lower limit for registration, or an excess high school certification like SAT Many of the private schools were built by missionaries, are presently affiliated with churches and provide quality instruction. Many private schools offer extra educational plans, along with the national course of study, such as the American High School Diploma, the British IGCSE system, the Gallic baccalaureat, the German Abitur and the International Baccalaureate. These are the types of private schools in Egypt. Basic Education The basic instruction consists of pre-primary, primary and preparative degrees of instruction. In Egypt, the Ministry of Education coordinates the preschool instruction. In 1999-2000 the entire registration rate of pre-primary pupils was 16 per centum and that increased to 24 per centum in 2009. Irrespective of private or province tally, all preschool establishments come under Ministry of Education. It is the Ministry ‘s responsibility to choose and administer text editions. Harmonizing to the Ministry ‘s guidelines, the maximal size of a preschool should non transcend more than 45 pupils. Ministry of Education is besides acquiring support from the international bureaus, such as the World Bank to heighten the early childhood instruction system by increasing entree to schools, bettering quality of instruction and edifice capacity of instructors At the primary degree pupils could go to private, spiritual or authorities schools. Presently, there are 7.8 per centum of pupils enrolled at primary degree in private schools as of 2007.The entire registration of pupils at primary degree is 105 per centum in 2007. The scrutinies at class 3 are on territory ( edara ) level The 2nd grade of basic compulsory instruction is the preparative phase or lower secondary which is three old ages long. Completion of this grade grants pupils the Basic Education Completion Certificate. The importance of completion of this degree of instruction is to safeguard pupils against illiteracy as early bead outs at this phase easy recede into illiteracy and finally poorness. Secondary instruction consists of three paths: general, vocational/technical and the dualsystem vocational instruction which represented I Mubarak Kohl schools. The general secondary phase includes 3 old ages of instruction, whereas the secondary vocational path could be for 3-5 years.And 3 old ages for the double system vocational education.To enter the secondary degree, the pupils must go through a national te st which is given at terminal of the secondary phase. As of twelvemonth 2004 the 77.3 per centum of pupils finishing preparatory phase are estimated to be enrolled in secondary education.At this degree, pupils have formative and summational appraisals during the first twelvemonth and the norm of the terminal of twelvemonth national standardised tests for twelvemonth two and three qualifies the pupils to take the Certificate of General Secondary Education-Thanawiya Amma, which is one of the demands for admittance into the universities. So far attempts are afoot with the support of many-sided organisations to do the general and vocational secondary system less stiff and supply equal chances to pupils of assorted wealth quin tiles in the two paths to choose for higher instruction. This is besides being implemented by the World Bank led secondary sweetening undertaking in Egypt. A Secondary Education Secondary instruction consists of three paths: general, vocational/technical and the dualsystem vocational instruction which represented I Mubarak Kohl schools. The general secondary phase includes 3 old ages of instruction, whereas the secondary vocational path could be for 3-5 years.And 3 old ages for the double system vocational education.To enter the secondary degree, the pupils must go through a national test which is given at terminal of the secondary phase. As of twelvemonth 2004 the 77.3 per centum of pupils finishing preparatory phase are estimated to be enrolled in secondary instruction.At this degree, pupils have formative and summational appraisals during the first twelvemonth and the norm of the terminal of twelvemonth national standardised tests for twelvemonth two and three qualifies the pupils to take the Certificate of General Secondary Education-Thanawiya Amma, which is one of the demands for admittance into the universities. So far attempts are afoot with the suppo rt of many-sided organisations to do the general and vocational secondary system less stiff and supply equal chances to pupils of assorted wealth quintiles in the two paths to choose for higher instruction. This is besides being implemented by the World Bank led secondary sweetening undertaking in Egypt. Secondary instruction consists of three different types: general, proficient or vocational. Technical/Vocational Secondary Education Technical instruction, which is provided in three-year and five-year plans, includes schools in three different Fieldss: industrial, commercial and agricultural. The UN and other many-sided organisations are working towards bettering the proficient and vocational preparation system in Egypt. It is recommended to the Ministry of Education to present wide vocational accomplishments in the course of study of general secondary schools. In this manner pupils will be able to derive enfranchisement in practical accomplishments needed in the occupation market The Ministry of Education ( MoE ) controls pre-tertiary, school-based plans that can get down after grade 6 and that enroll the largest figure of pupils in TVET-over 2 million pupils. The Ministry of Higher Education ( MoHE ) controls the in-between proficient institutes ( MTIs ) . These draw their registrations from MoE ‘s general secondary schools or proficient schools and have much small er registration Numberss. Graduates o f the MoE ‘s vocational plans can come in vocational preparation centres ( VTCs ) From the 2004 information, it is estimated that 30 per centum of the secondary pupils have opted for the vocational track Government of Egypt has undertaken some assuring enterprises to beef up the direction and reform of the TVET system.In 2006 the Industrial Training Council ( ITC ) was created through a ministerial edict with a authorization to better coordination and way of all preparation related entities, undertakings and policies in the Ministry.This will decide the issue faced by most houses to use skilled work force.According to the Enterprise Surveys in 2007, 31 per centum of the houses in Egypt place labour skill level as the major restraint of making concern in the state. Al Azhar Education System Another system that runs in analogue with the public educational system is known as the Al-Azhar system. It consists of six old ages of primary phase, a three twelvemonth preparatory phase and eventually three old ages of secondary phase. The Ministry of instruction reduced the figure of secondary school old ages from four to three old ages in 1998, so as to aline the Al Azhar system with the general secondary instruction system. In this system every bit good, there are separate schools for misss and male childs. Al Azhar instruction system is supervised by the Supreme Council of the Al-Azhar Institution. The Azhar Institution itself is nominally independent from the Ministry of Education, but is finally under supervising by the Egyptian Prime Minister.Al Azhar schools are named â€Å" Institutes † and include primary, preparatory, and secondary phases.All schools in all phases teach spiritual topics and non-religious topics, to a certain degree- non every bit intensively as t he province schools. The majority of the course of study, nevertheless, consists of spiritual topics as described below. All the pupils are Muslims, and males and females are separated in all phases. Al-Azhar schools are all over the state, particularly in rural countries. The alumnuss of Al-Azhar secondary schools are eligible to go on their surveies merely at the Al-Azhar University. As of 2007 and 2008, there are 8272 Al-Azhar schools in Egypt. In the early 2000s, Al-Azhar schools accounted for less than 4 % of the entire enrollment.The alumnuss of this system are so automatically accepted into Al-Azhar University.In 2007, the Pre-University registration in Al- Azhar institutes is about 1,906,290 pupils. Higher Education System Egypt has a really extended higher instruction system. About 30 % of all Egyptians in the relevant age group go to university. However, merely half of them alumnus. Harmonizing to The Economist, criterions of instruction at Egyptian public universities are â€Å" abysmal † . The Ministry of Higher Education supervises the third degree of instruction. There are a figure of universities providing to pupils in diverse Fieldss. In the current instruction system, there are 17 public universities, 51 public non-university establishments, 16 private universities and 89 private higher establishments. Out of the 51 non -university establishments, 47 are biennial in-between proficient institutes ( MTIs ) and four are 4-5 old ages higher proficient institutes ‘ . The higher instruction cohort is expected to increase by close to 6 per centum ( 60,000 ) pupils per annum through 2009 In 1990, a statute law was passed to supply greater liberty to the universities17. But still the instruction substructure, equipment and human resources are non in topographic point to provide to the lifting higher instruction pupils. Gross registration in third instruction increased from 27 per centum in 2003 to 31 per centum in 2005.But there has non been a similar addition in passing on bettering the higher instruction system in footings of debut of new plans and technologies.Both at national degree ( inspection systems, scrutinies ) and at local degree ( school degree pupil appraisals ) steps of the success of instruction schemes and the public presentation of the system are weak. The inspectorate system does non supply either solid proficient support to school staff, nor an effectual monitoring mechanism for neglecting schools. The scrutiny system at the terminal of preparatory and secondary levels-Thanawiya Awwa, does non mensurate higher-order thought accomplishments, but conc entrates instead on rote memorisation. Tonss can therefore be raised significantly by test specific tutoring, hence, pupils with more resources can afford private tutoring which helps them to hit higher on the national standardised tests and hence are accepted in top universities in Egypt. Hence, this competitory procedure of choice restricts pupils ‘ grade options and consequences, therefore doing pupils choose for plans and callings which are of small involvement to them The Egyptian third instruction is steered by a centralised system with establishments holding small control on the determinations of the course of study, plan development and deployment of staff and module. Bettering system administration and efficiency is an imperative that takes on added urgency given that a important population bump has reached the higher instruction system.The existent figure of pupils come ining higher instruction grew by 17 per centum per twelvemonth between 1992/93 and 1997/98. The effect was a crisp diminution in per pupil disbursement of around 40 per centum in existent footings over that period. The higher instruction cohort is projected to go on to increase by close to 6 per centum ( 60,000 pupils ) per annum through 2009. This means that important efficiencies will necessitate to be introduced into the system merely to keep quality at its current unequal degree. The public presentation and quality of higher instruction is presently badly compromised by ex cessively centralized order to better the already out-of-date system, stiff course of study and instruction patterns. Bettering system administration and efficiency is an imperative that takes on added urgency given that a important population bump has reached the higher instruction system.The existent figure of pupils come ining higher instruction grew by 17 per centum per twelvemonth between 1992/93 and 1997/98. The effect was a crisp diminution in per pupil disbursement of around 40 per centum in existent footings over that period. The higher instruction cohort is projected to go on to increase by close to 6 per centum ( 60,000 pupils ) per annum through 2009. This means that important efficiencies will necessitate to be introduced into the system merely to keep quality at its current unequal degree [ The Government of Egypt recognizes that there are existent challenges to be faced in the sector, foremost amongst which are the demand to significantly better sector administration and efficiency, increase institutional liberty, significantly better the quality and relevancy of higher instruction plans, and maintain coverage at bing degrees. Recent Government actions to construct political consensus on issues critical to reform hold created a clime that is mature for alteration. The Ministry of Higher Education ( MOHE ) acts as a title-holder for reform. The Minister, appointed in 1997, rapidly established a commission for the reform of higher instruction ( known as the HEEP Committee ) which drew in a broad scope of stakeholders including industrialists and Parliamentarians. A National Conference on higher instruction reform was held in February 2000, and a Declaration for action emanating from the Conference was endorsed by the President and the Prime Minister. The Declaration identified 25 specific reform enterprises. The Bank agrees with, and supports, the Declaration. A scope of many-sided and bilateral bureaus, including the World Bank, besides concur wi th the Declaration ‘s proposals, and are committed to back uping assorted facets of the reform procedure, The Government ‘s Higher Education Reform Strategy Egyptian higher instruction reform scheme included 25 undertakings turn toing all the reform domains, is implemented over three stages until 2017, and corresponds to the authorities ‘s five twelvemonth programs as follows: First stage from 2002 to 2007 Second stage from 2007 to 2012 Third stage from 2012 to 2017 Precedence has been given to 12 undertakings in the first stage of execution ( 2002-2007 ) and were integrated into the undermentioned six undertakings: HEEP Six Priority Projects ( 2002-2007 ) Higher Education Enhancement Project Fund ( HEEPF ) , Information and Communications Technology Project ( ICTP ) , Egyptian Technical Colleges Project ( ETCP ) , Faculty of Education Project ( FOEP ) , Faculty Leaders Development Project ( FLDP ) , Quality Assurance and Accreditation Project ( QAAP ) . In August 2004, HEEP strategic precedences were adjusted to go antiphonal to the demands of quality and accreditation and to match to the authorities ‘s attack to bettering scientific research. The accommodation added two more dimensions: foremost, developing station alumnus surveies and scientific research and second, turn toing pupils ‘ extra-curricular activities in add-on to the continued execution of the six prioritized plans during the first stage. Due to the dynamic nature of the reform scheme, which entails reconsidering precedences for each period, a Strategic Planning Unit ( SPU ) was established for the MOHE to guarantee the sustainability of planning and undertaking monitoring during the three stages and for future 1s. A Students ‘ Activity Project ( SAP ) was besides initiated as portion of plan accreditation similar to scientific research and station alumnus surveies. There are both private and public establishments of higher instruction in Egypt. Publ ic higher instruction is free in Egypt, and Egyptian pupils merely pay enrollment fees. Private instruction is much more expensive. A Education and the Community There were a few efforts for positive impact and reform from the civil community in Egypt but those attempts remained really limited on their impact on the educational procedure. Education crisis in Egypt is really complicated, public instruction is non capable of supplying quality instruction are barely any instruction with the deficit in installations, deficiency of trained pedagogues and rising prices in categories. Private ( including International ) is still incapable of reform for the deficiency of involvement, deficit in trained pedagogues, faulty course of study, commercialisation of instruction and eventually a customized accreditation system that involves the irrevokable licensure of International schools based on campaigning for accreditation while campaigning for accreditation is originally based on the initial efficiency of the school in supplying the educational services including its position as a legal instruction supplier that it does n't acquire to acquire unless it s a campaigner school, which is puting the cart before the Equus caballus. No community attempts have been done to turn to the crisis of instruction in Egypt until 2008, when the [ International-Curricula Educators Association O ¬U†¦O?USO © U†¦O?U„U†¦US O §U„U†¦U† O §U†¡O ¬ O §U„O?U?U„USO © ( ICEA ) ] . was established with modest fiscal resources but great outlooks. The Community addressed itself to lending to work outing the educational jobs in Egypt including the deficit in research, statistics and entrepreneurship in the field of instruction. On 2009 it ‘s started affecting voluntaries through the UNV plan and has successfully began to develop its scope of not-for-profit services to turn to several demands of the educational community in Egypt get downing from low-cost certified instructor preparation and traveling doing its manner through all the needed pupil activities exciting citizenship whether on the local or the planetary degree. Challenges Although important advancement has been made to increase human capital base through improved instruction system, still the quality of instruction experience is low and unevenly distributed. Due to miss of good quality instruction at the basic and secondary degrees, there has been a mushrooming market for private tutoring. Now to take private tuition has become more of an duty than a remedial activity. Harmonizing to the Egypt Human Development Report ( 2005 ) , 58 per centum of surveyed households stated that their kids take private tutoring. The CAPMAS ( 2004 ) study showed that families spend on norm about 61 per centum of entire instruction outgo on private tutoring. In add-on, per family outgo of the richest quintile on private tutoring is more than seven times that of the poorest. Among the issues is the deficiency of sufficient instruction in public schools and the demand for private tuition. As of 2005, 61-70 % of Egyptian pupils attend private tuitionOther common issues inclu de: larceny of public educational financess and escape of exams.. Egypt besides has a deficit of skilled and semi-skilled workforce.But there has been an copiousness of low-skilled labourers. Even if there are any high-skilled workers available, their quality of preparation is rather hapless. This is largely a job in small-medium companies and big public industries that work in â€Å" protected † domestic markets. The mean gross production per worker is lower than other North African states: Maroc and Tunisia. Youth unemployment is besides really high, chiefly due to deficiency of instruction system in supplying necessary preparation under TVET plans. A survey conducted by UNESCO on educational equity in universe ‘s 16 most thickly settled states placed Egypt in the in-between scope in footings of equity of primary and secondary registrations across governorates in Egypt But when the wealth constituent is added to education attainment, the consequences are non really encouraging. There are significantly higher registration rates in wealthier parts at both the primary and secondary degrees. This confirms that more attempts are needed to cut down the wealth spread in educational attainment